A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

Chapter 5

The Training and Daily Lives of Teachers
(Part 1 of 2)

"We as teachers are forced to be educators, parents, also counselors - I mean absolutely everything."

(Teacher in U.S.)

"During the daytime you're supposed to teach your course, and then after school and in the evening, on your own for the most part, you're supposed to devise new and great things. And during the summer, you have to want to do it on your own, and you have to get people together. And if you're doing it for free, nobody particularly wants to."

(Teacher in U.S.)

"I do not think that some people are born to be good teachers. Instead, I think that teachers have to like people, and be willing to learn and improve effective teaching techniques."

(Teacher in Germany)

"I do not mind having visitors in my class, but colleagues should not evaluate me personally or my teaching style. I do not want to open myself to other teachers because they could use my openness to talk about me in a bad way."

(Teacher in Germany)

"During my first year, I was always told by various older teachers about the correct way to write on the chalkboard. For example, first always write the purpose - what we will be studying. That kind of idea, for me now and for a lot of teachers is a really important device to use."

(Teacher in Japan)

"It's important for students to think. I know that if I explain what's in the textbook, nearly all students in this school will understand. But if I do that, much of their attention and energy will be spent on simply memorizing my explanation. I don't think this is desirable. Instead, I will present them with a question and first ask them to write down whatever comes across their minds, and start from there, so that they actually have to think in order to come up with a solution.

(Teacher in Japan)

The central figure in all education is the teacher. Countries whose students do well in international comparative studies are likely to applaud their country's teachers. Similarly, when a nation's students perform less effectively, one of the public's first reactions is to blame the teachers.

While the quality of teaching is clearly an important basis for students' academic achievement, there are many other factors that influence teachers' effectiveness and the consequent levels of achievement of their students. For example, societies differ widely in the degree to which teachers are esteemed and to which teaching is viewed as a critical profession for the society's welfare and progress. One measure of esteem is the financial support available for teachers' salaries. Salaries certainly influence the decision to become teachers and to remain teachers (see table 10).

We focused our attention in this study on the professional lives of teachers and the environments in which they work. In our interviews, conversations, and observations of teachers and in our discussions with parents and education authorities we looked for insights into teachers' status in society, their feelings about becoming a teacher, their professional competencies and personal ambitions, their everyday physical and social environments, their role in school administration, and the opportunities that exist for their collegial interaction and cooperation.

Discussion of these topics is grouped into five major sections. The first deals with the path to becoming a teacher and we follow the aspiring teacher through the college and pre-college years. Next, we consider attitudes about being a teacher. Following this, we present teachers' views about education practices; next we describe a typical day for teachers in each country and then discuss teaching practices. The chapter ends with a discussion of the administration within schools and how this administration influences teachers' daily responsibilities.

Table 10-Teachers' compensation packages

SOURCE: Third International Mathematics and Science Study, Case Study Project, 1994-95.

Becoming a Teacher

Persons aspiring to become teachers in Japan, Germany, and the United States follow very different routes to attain their goal. The individuals we interviewed described differences in many dimensions, including the role of university training, practice teaching, professional examinations, the mentoring given to novice teachers, and in-service training. Table 11 provides a brief comparison of the education and training required to become a teacher in Japan, Germany, and the United States.

Table 11-Comparison of teacher training requirements

SOURCE: Third International Mathematics and Science Study, Case Study Project, 1994-95.

Japan. With rare exceptions, a bachelor's degree is required for teaching at all grade levels except kindergarten, where a two-year degree may be sufficient. Elementary school teachers are likely to have graduated from a teachers' university, but the majority of the high school teachers receive their bachelors degree from regular universities (Shimizu et al. 1993). Public school teachers rarely study for advanced degrees.

Those who seek to be a teacher must take education courses and choose an academic area in which to specialize. The teachers we spoke to also indicated that during the four-year undergraduate program, the teacher-in-training visits schools, writes lesson plans, and eventually spends from two to four weeks in closely supervised student teaching. Women constitute approximately 60 percent of elementary school teachers, but positions at successive grade levels are increasingly held by men (Shimizu et al. 1993).

Following college, aspiring teachers must take the difficult teacher qualification examination administered at the prefecture level. Those who pass the examination are certified as elementary and middle school or high school teachers. The large number of certified teachers seeking positions makes this a highly competitive profession.

Those who find a teaching position are assigned a mentor teacher who works with them throughout their first year. The mentor, a master teacher who is given a reduced teaching load for taking on these additional responsibilities, visits the new teacher's classroom frequently and then discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the practices that were observed. In addition to the guidance provided by the mentor, the new teacher is also expected to visit a teachers' resource center a certain number of days each week. Resource centers are staffed by experienced teachers who lead seminars. They contain teaching materials, lesson plans, teachers' magazines, and reference books to help the new teacher construct interesting, relevant lessons.

The Japanese approach to professional training and continuing education for teachers relies heavily on settings involving skilled teachers-primarily schools and resource centers-rather than on university classrooms. This approach continues throughout the teachers' career. In fact, after their 5^th and 10^th years of teaching, teachers must return to the resource center to participate in workshops, seminars, classroom observations, and study. Rather than depending on administrators in their own schools or on university professors whose experiences in elementary or secondary classrooms may have ended some years earlier, teachers are expected to learn from each other. This occurs through discussions during grade level and subject oriented committee meetings, observations of new teaching methods, and informal conversations. These approaches form the Japanese response to a need voiced by teachers in all three countries. The need, according to these teachers, is for obtaining help in solving day-to-day problems, rather than for receiving further exposure to theories of education and to the philosophy and history of education.

Another need commonly expressed by Japanese teachers and principals was for opportunities for teachers to be well-rounded persons with experience in the everyday world. According to one of the principals, "Whatever the teacher teaches, they must demonstrate a broad knowledge of contemporary society." The acquisition of such information is fostered, among other ways, through overnight outings with other teachers, Monbusho-sponsored cruises (in which several thousand teachers each year tour the Japanese islands and visit cultural and educational sites), and trips overseas to observe the cultures and teaching practices of other countries. Teachers may also be appointed as researchers, which makes it possible for a select group of teachers to make visits to cultural and educational settings in other regions of Japan. These formal mechanisms for broadening teachers' experiences are supplemented by volunteer study groups in which discussions are held on topics such as textbooks, teaching methods, lesson plans, and new curricula.

Germany. Each of the 16 German states handles its own program of teacher training, but the Conference of Ministers of Education from all the German states establishes the fundamental requirements for becoming a teacher. After completing 4 or 5 years of university study that includes several weeks of observation in a school, teachers-in-training must take the First State exam. Those who pass the examination must complete a 24-month assignment as a student teacher. This requirement is consistent with the common German requirement of 2 years of apprenticeship prior to obtaining a license in any trade or profession. Student teaching involves observation of classrooms, teaching with the assistance of a mentor, and, finally, being in charge of the classroom. As in Japan, mentors are skilled teachers, but unlike the practice in Japan, they are not given reduced teaching assignments during the time they work with practice teachers. Practice teachers are also observed regularly by their seminar teachers. The general consensus seems to be that the 2 years of practice teaching, for which the trainees are paid half of their first regular year's salary, is extremely valuable, but also very stressful.

After the two-year period of practical training is completed, teachers-in-training must pass the Second State Examination. They are then qualified to seek a regular appointment as a teacher. Performance on the Second State Examination is evaluated on the basis of grades given for practice teaching, a thesis in one of two major subjects, written lesson plans, and oral examinations in all major subjects. Teachers in fields such as physical education, art, and music, or in technical fields may also have to take a practical examination. Because of the need for vocational teachers, some deviation from this set of requirements is allowed for qualified people from business or industry who may be recruited directly into teacher training.

Because German universities are large and crowded, a question is often raised about the adequacy of the university education received by teachers, both in their liberal arts and education courses. The teachers we interviewed criticized education courses primarily because of their overemphasis on theory and their relative lack of experience in practical application. On the other hand, Gymnasium teachers, who regard themselves as subject specialists, complained that their required courses in education were of little value to them.

Certification is for a particular level of school, such as the Gymnasium or Hauptschule. This makes it difficult for teachers in crowded fields to switch readily to a type of school in which there is less competition for positions. At present, for example, secondary teachers face a difficult job market, but Grundschule teachers are in demand.

New teachers are given full responsibility for their classes. This ensures that they will have a high degree of independence, but the lack of support system is considered a major contributor to burnout and early retirement of German teachers. Teachers are usually on probation for 3 years before they can be appointed as civil servants with tenure. The decision for awarding this status is based primarily on the observation of classroom teaching by the school principal and by assessment of the teacher's lesson plans. Once they become civil servants, their salaries are determined by a prescribed set of yearly increases and it is nearly impossible to change their employment status.

Continuing education occurs primarily through attendance at state-sponsored university courses and presentations by experts, an approach that differs radically from the school-based peer-centered continuing education programs in Japan. Participation in the continuing education courses in Germany is up to the teacher and is quite variable. Even when participation is seemingly obligatory, the teacher has the choice of courses in which to enroll.

United States. The formal aspects of teacher training in the United States occur primarily in university classrooms. Individuals aspiring to become elementary school teachers typically enroll in a liberal arts program for the first 2 years of their college training and then transfer to a department or college of education to complete their undergraduate program. Some complete a major or minor in the subjects they expect to teach. Others, especially those planning to become elementary school teachers, have only a minimal number of courses in the subjects for which they will be responsible (USDE 1993b).

Students preparing to be secondary school teachers generally specialize in one academic discipline, such as mathematics, and take a limited number of courses in education. Typically, teachers-in-training spend one semester in a school during their senior year working as a student teacher.

These are the most common paths, but, as is the case in most aspects of the United States education system, other paths are also available. Some individuals aspiring to become certified teachers spend their days teaching or working at another job and take their education courses during evenings, weekends, and holidays. Others complete a four-year major in a liberal arts field and then remain in the university for an additional year during which they complete their required courses in education.

An effort is made to control the quality of teachers' education programs, and therefore the quality of teachers graduating from these programs, primarily through state licensing and certification procedures. There is a greater emphasis on credentialing than on evaluating the individuals' mastery of the subject and of techniques for effective teaching. Nevertheless, most states also require prospective teachers to pass some type of competency test before they can receive a teaching certificate and be hired by a school district.

Teachers are required to attend in-service training programs, usually held at their school or in the school district, as well as mini-courses that fulfill continuing education requirements. Credits from these workshops and in-service training programs are necessary in order to maintain certification. These programs tend to be relatively brief in length and cover a diverse array of topics; ranging from suicide prevention to brain functions and curriculum development. Teachers expressed enthusiasm about acquiring information from these sources but often said that the topics were chosen haphazardly and were not necessarily organized with the teachers' greatest needs in mind. The kinds of courses for which they expressed the greatest interest were those dealing with computers, writing, core subjects in elementary school, and teaching methods.

Some characteristics of teachers are similar in all three countries, such as the reason they become teachers. When we asked teachers about why they became a teacher, the most frequent reply was the desire to work with children and adolescents. One Japanese teacher gave a vivid description of his motivation for becoming an elementary school teacher:

It is because elementary school children are very pure. Right? They don't know anything, you know. And teaching children who don't know anything-there is nothing more wonderful than that.

Teachers also said they liked the working hours, the extended vacation time and the security of a job that offers lifetime tenure or a secure appointment as a civil servant. High school teachers, to a greater degree than elementary school teachers, also chose a teaching career as an alternative to entering another profession or decided that becoming a teacher offered a more appealing life after having originally entered a different type of position. Table 12 summarizes the relative desirability of teaching as a profession in each of the three countries. Each factor is discussed in further detail in the following section.

Table 12-Factors indicating desirability of teaching profession

SOURCE: Third International Mathematics and Science Study, Case Study Project, 1994-95.

Negative aspects of teaching mentioned by teachers in all three countries revolved around their constant struggle to keep up to date. Teachers said they felt ill-prepared by their professional training to meet the requirements of teaching so much that is new, whether it is the latest computer technology or the most recent advances in mathematics and physics. In responding to this need, schools have made efforts to provide teachers with increased access to in-service training.

Teachers described an increase in dissatisfaction with the teaching profession, for which they offered three explanations. First, individuals training to become teachers are not necessarily able to find a teaching job. Because teaching is considered to be a secure position there has been an increase in the number of persons who would like to become teachers. As a result, the competition for most available positions has become intense. Second, teachers have been assigned added responsibilities that many consider to have little to do with the profession for which they have been trained. A third source of dissatisfaction is the belief that an increasing number of families abdicate some of the responsibilities for child rearing and expect that teachers will assume them.

There are major differences, however, in the status, salaries, and other aspects of the teaching profession in the three countries, as are described in the following sections.

Japan. Entering the teaching profession rather than a position in industry and commerce in Japan does not mean that the individual will suffer, either economically or in terms of social status. Teachers' incomes are competitive with those in other professions requiring similar amounts of training. As is common in many professions, their basic yearlong salary is supplemented by bonuses equivalent to up to 5 months salary and by allowances for certain personal and professional expenses. Nor is there a wide disparity between the salaries of university professors and public school teachers, reflecting the importance given to teaching at all levels of education. Salaries are based on the length of service to the school district.

In terms of prestige, the Japanese term for teacher (sensei) still carries an aura of authority and status that is accorded to skilled, experienced professionals. Despite this, teachers in Japan complain that the status of teachers has declined in recent years.

Germany. Salaries of teachers are comparable to those obtained in other civil servant positions requiring a comparable number of years of education. As civil servants they also receive other benefits such as household supplements, health care, and paid vacation time. Increases in salaries are determined by civil service regulations and there are few opportunities for promotion. Some teachers do become administrators with an appropriate increase in salary, but they continue teaching for several hours a week in order to maintain a collegial relationship with other teachers in the school. Teachers are permitted 12 years of unpaid leave, thereby making teaching a desirable profession for persons, such as mothers, who must juggle family life with work.

There is worry among teachers that the status of teachers in German society is declining. Regardless of whether this is the case, there is a clear hierarchy in the prestige of teachers in the various types of schools. At the top are Gymnasium teachers, followed by those who teach in Realschule and Gesamtschule. Lowest in the hierarchy are the Grundschule and Hauptschule teachers.

Teachers in the Gymnasium may have a Ph.D. degree and generally refer to themselves as mathematicians, historians, or physicists, for example, rather than as schoolteachers. Whether or not Gymnasium teachers have obtained the Ph.D., they give greater attention to their training in academic subjects than do teachers in the other types of schools. In fact, some Realschule and Hauptschule teachers told us that they chose to teach in these schools because they did not want to spend as much time pursuing the advanced study of academic subjects as would be necessary if they were to teach in a Gymnasium.

Teachers had numerous complaints and suggestions about the teaching profession as it exists in Germany today. There is a need, they suggested, for more interaction among teachers and more frequent contact between teachers and parents. They are concerned about the lowering of standards in the education system, which they interpret as being due to the influx of foreign workers' families and to the growing number of students who gain admission to a Gymnasium.

One aspect of teaching that is not found in Japan or the United States is the close contact that Grundschule teachers have with parents at the end of fourth grade. This is the time when parents must make the critical decision regarding the type of school their child should attend the following year. Parents rely strongly on the teachers' recommendations because they generally believe that teachers are better informed about the child's strengths and weaknesses than are the parents themselves. Discussing the basis of their recommendations with parents is a time-consuming task for Grundschule teachers.

United States. There are no national or state-sponsored salary scales. Teachers with a bachelors degree receive the lowest salaries; salaries of those with a masters degree are somewhat higher; and those who have both a masters degree and 30 academic credits receive the highest compensation. It is not surprising to find at both the elementary and secondary levels a teacher who holds a doctoral degree, nearly always in education. Because of their low salaries, many teachers seek other types of employment to supplement their income, a practice that is prohibited by teachers' contracts in Japan. Many high school teachers supplement their teaching salary by supervising extracurricular activities.

In addition to their salaries, U.S. teachers are nearly always provided with health and life insurance and participation in a retirement program. Negotiations about these matters, as well as about such things as class size, preparation time, and lunch duty, occur between the teachers' unions and the school district's administrative officers.

Teachers gain tenure in a school district after several years of successful performance and are likely to remain in the same school district in which they gained tenure. Because mobility of teachers is not great, teachers may, in fact, remain in the same school, teaching the same grade, throughout their teaching careers. This is not an uncommon practice in Germany, but in Japan all teachers must change schools and grades systematically. Teachers, as well as principals, move to a new school after 6 or 7 years. Moreover, because they remain with the same pupils for at least 2 years, they seldom teach the same grade for more than a single year.

The major complaints of U.S. teachers were the overscheduling of their time, with at least five classes a day and inadequate time to prepare for them, the lack of involvement of many parents in their children's education, the constantly changing curricula to which they must adapt, and the lack of respect that many parents and the general public hold for teachers and their contributions to American society.

When teachers were asked about the changes that were most greatly needed in U.S. schools, they came up with four: more flexible schedules, more opportunity to interact with each other, increased resources, and more assistance.

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[Chapter 4 - The Place of School in Adolescents' Lives (Part 2 of 2)]

[Chapter 5 - The Training and Daily Lives of Teachers (Part 2 of 2)]