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This summary is organized around the three major themes that emerge from the literature review--common themes of the reformers, making the reforms happen, and implications of the research literature for the project.
Learning to think is generally identified in the literature as an essential goal for all students, not simply those going on to higher education. The research literature portrays this kind of thinking as 1) being complex, 2) not fully known in advance, 3) often yielding multiple solutions, 4) involving uncertainty, 5) requiring nuanced judgments and 6) requiring considerable mental effort. It also must be done in context; the subject matter of the school curriculum provides such a context, with science and mathematics as excellent examples.
A constructivist approach to learning requires student to be active builders of their own knowledge, and not passive recipients of information. As active participants in their own learning, students
Constructivist learning among students requires a reconceptualization of teaching. Rather than viewing students as passive recipients of information, teachers must focus on helping students construct understanding of concepts for themselves. Instead of spending time memorizing material, filling in blanks on worksheets, and repeating large numbers of similar problems, students need to solve novel problems, integrate information and create understanding for themselves. The teacher's role is to foster this hard work on the part of the student.
While the research indicates what such teaching involves, these findings are not as definitive as the findings pertaining to the learning itself; more is known about constructivist learning than constructivist teaching. In particular, this understanding of teaching is limited when considered in the context of classrooms having large numbers of students of diverse backgrounds and abilities.
A constructivist view of learning and teaching also requires changes in other components of schooling, namely, curriculum, assessment and policy. These aspects of constructivist learning and teaching are in various stages of development and research. With respect to curriculum, one theme is prominent in the literature--"Less is more." Some information is more important than other information in developing sophisticated understanding of science and mathematics. It is not just a matter of learning more, it is a matter of learning that which will help build the desired overall conceptual picture. Encyclopedic learning of large quantities of information can potentially interfere with this selective learning of that which is of fundamental importance--especially given the fact that some of these most important understandings are the most complex and require the most effort to learn. Effective learning requires focusing on the most important concepts and making the effort--on the part of the learner--required to build the necessary understanding. Greater selective attention to the most important conceptual understandings is the foundation of effective learning, thus the idea that "Less is more."
Significant curriculum reform is not possible without close attention to these basic principles of learning. As a result, current curriculum reform efforts such as Project 2061 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the Scope, Sequence and Coordination (SS&C) Project of the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), and the Standards of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) all attend in substantial ways to constructivist learning. Instead of presenting isolated facts, major attempts are made to focus on major themes of the subject matter and foster an integration of knowledge across disciplines.
Barriers to Change. Among the barriers to change are 1) the beliefs and values on the part of everyone involved, 2) the lack of teacher preparation to teach constructively, 3) the need to reeducate students to their role in learning constructively, 4) the need for new instructional, curricular and assessment materials and high learning outcomes and expectations to support the teaching and learning changes, and 5) the tensions of instituting the new while operating in the old education system.
Primary barriers to change are the operational and cultural belief and value systems and priorities of stakeholders including the teachers, administrators, students, the community, and reformers themselves. A certain amount of consensus is needed for reform efforts to be mobilized effectively over the years of time required. The more diverse these beliefs and values are, the more difficult the change. Even if reformers should agree on the matter of goals and the nature of learning and teaching, there is still the need for consensus regarding the means for reaching this new vision of education. Given the political context of reform efforts, it is clear that the lack of consensus among the public at large is a barrier to reform as well.
Teacher and administrator beliefs and values coupled with few models and a general lack of preparation to teach constructively present a second major barrier to change. Constructivist teaching requires changes in at least three areas of educational identity--subject matter, pedagogy, and personal. As a coach, teachers must monitor both process and product through changes in classroom management, teaching strategies, and assessments.
Similarly the new expectations of students are a barrier. Many students, often those who are most successful in the current system, resist changing from a predictable process in which they know how to succeed to one which fosters intellectual development in a context of some uncertainty, problems with multiple solutions and a lack of specific directions as to what to do. Students may be joined in their resistance by parents who understand the existing system but also find the new expectations confusing and demanding.
Even if there is an adequate consensus vision of what education should be on the part of everyone involved, change is not assured. Change is not easy; in particular, changes in roles of people are difficult. It is not easy for teachers to learn the new roles required of those who want to foster constructivist learning among students. It is not easy for students to overcome passivity and learn the needed role as a responsible and proactive learner.
Another barrier to reform is the lack of compatible instructional materials. None of the major science and mathematics education reform efforts of the AAAS, NSTA, or NCTM have produced curriculum materials for use with students. Although there is a limited patchwork of such materials--some developed by recent National Science Foundation (NSF) funded projects--none of the nationally recognized efforts of AAAS, NSTA, and NCTM as yet have produced comprehensive curriculum models and related teaching materials for students. While all students have been targeted for participation in the new approaches to learning, the levels of outcomes and expectations of students have not yet been operationally delineated.
All of the barriers described above exist within powerful institutional and cultural constraints. While the problems of bureaucracies, limited budgets, assessment practices, and rigid regulations are well recognized, the cultural constraints are at least as powerful, but often less visible. The commonly accepted values, beliefs and practices of the society found within a given school or community form a common culture which typically is a powerful constraint to change and generates tension during the reform process.
There are many barriers to educational reform; change clearly is difficult. It requires resources, commitment, knowledge and skills. Moreover, success depends upon applying them in the correct setting with appropriate timing. It is this approach to change which needs further attention.
Process of Change. The process by which change occurs varies greatly from one setting to another and from one time to another. Although certain generalizations appear to apply to successful change endeavors, there is no particular set of processes (plural) to apply to ensure success. The overall process (singular) varies greatly but there are some important understandings that seem important to success--a systemic outlook, the empowerment of teachers and the development of a change culture in the school.
First, a systemic outlook is essential. All efforts to introduce new instructional approaches, new curriculum materials or instructional goals demand such actions as inservice education for teachers, discussions with parents to develop consensus on goals and new directions and leadership from administrators. Change requires attention to the subculture of students, schools, and communities. None of these actions by itself is sufficient. All of them together may not work if initiated without consideration for how they interact with each other. A systemic thinking approach to change accounts for the synergy of the individual perspectives--institutional, sociocultural, psychological, organizational, philosophical, political and subject matter--which all play a role in the initiation, implementation and continuation of change (Anderson, 1992). Actions taken at the national, state, district, school, and classroom levels, for example can interact to support change in a common direction, or they can counteract each other in such a manner that change is defeated. And even though actions taken are complementary, there is the possibility that the omission of some particular action or actions could stall what would otherwise be a successful reform effort. A vision of what should be must be combined with a systemic process of working toward that vision.
Second, positive and lasting change requires empowerment of teachers and an opportunity for them to develop their professional competency. Constructivist learning demands constructivist teaching. Such substantial change demands that teachers be empowered to examine and reshape their professional identity and develop their professional competencies. In effect, teachers need to construct new understandings of their role and develop the ability to incorporate these new understandings into their actions as teachers and to become reflective learners themselves. These new changes need to be reaffirmed by the development and use of constructivist assessments to support the changes in materials and teacher development.
Third, such fundamental and far-reaching changes imply significant changes in the culture of the schools. It means new roles for teachers, students, parents, and administrators. More collaboration among teachers and new responsibilities, for example, may emerge as important elements in this changed culture. Such changes demand a systemic outlook that causes individuals to reassess values and beliefs pertaining to education.
There are many strategies and processes which research (Fullan and Stiegelbauer, 1991) indicates are part of such a systemic approach. They are important to successful reform. This research has many facets and deserves close consideration. This consideration, however, must take place within the framework of systems thinking and an organizational context that is changing (Senge, 1990).
[Study Aims and Study Questions]