A r c h i v e d I n f o r m a t i o n
Study of Curriculum Reform - October 1996
Executive Summary
The core of the Curriculum Reform Project was conducting case studies of educational reforms in nine schools, preparing a cross-site analysis of the cases, and identifying the implications of this analysis for policy, practice, and research.
The literature review conducted as part of the project highlighted important dimensions of the educational reforms sought in science, mathematics and higher order thinking across the disciplines. The literature identifies a number of common themes of the reformers and provides insights on the process of making changes in schools.
Common themes of the reformers. Learning to think is generally identified in the literature as an essential goal for all students, not simply those going on to higher education. It portrays this kind of thinking as 1) being complex, 2) not fully known in advance, 3) often yielding multiple solutions, 4) involving uncertainty, 5) requiring nuanced judgments, and 6) requiring considerable mental effort.
A constructivist approach to learning requires students to be active builders of their own knowledge, and not passive recipients of information. As active participants in their own learning, students construct their own meaning by negotiating that meaning with others, making connections with and modifying prior conceptions, and addressing content in a variety of contexts.
Constructivist learning among students requires a reconceptualization of teaching. Rather than viewing students as passive recipients of information, teachers must focus on helping students construct understanding of concepts for themselves. Instead of spending time memorizing material, filling in blanks on worksheets, and repeating large numbers of similar problems, students need to solve novel problems, integrate information, and create knowledge for themselves. The teacher's role is to foster this hard work on the part of the student.
A constructivist view of learning and teaching also requires changes in other components of schooling, namely, curriculum, assessment and policy. These aspects of constructivist learning and teaching are in various stages of development and research.
Barriers to change. Among the barriers to change are 1) the beliefs and values of everyone involved, 2) the lack of teacher preparation to teach constructively, 3) the need to reeducate students to their role in learning constructively, 4) the need for new instructional, curricular and assessment approaches along with high learning outcomes and expectations to support the teaching and learning changes, and 5) the tensions of instituting the new while operating in the old education system.
The process of change. The process by which change occurs varies greatly from one setting to another and from one time to another, although certain generalizations apply to successful change endeavors. First, a systemic outlook is essential. Second, positive and lasting change requires empowerment of teachers and an opportunity for them to develop their professional competency. Third, such fundamental and far-reaching changes imply significant changes in the culture of the schools.
Among the prominent research questions are ones pertaining both to the substance of the reforms and the means by which the reforms were put in place.
- How are the sites defining their purposes and goals of reform with respect to students, teachers and the rest of the system?
- What changes have occurred in the content of instruction?
- What changes have occurred in the means of instruction, i.e., how are teachers fostering students' ability to construct desired learning outcomes?
- What has been the impact on student learning and what can be inferred from positive results about various ways of teaching science, mathematics, and higher order thinking?
- What are the mechanisms for change?
- How do implementation efforts play out in classrooms; i.e. what happens in classrooms when teachers embrace the spirit of the reforms espoused by the various national groups?
- How are sites developing high quality content that meets the needs of their full range of students?
- How are sites developing teachers' abilities to use a constructivist way of teaching?
- What are the dynamics of change as viewed from a teaching and learning perspective among (a) students, (b) teachers and (c) the rest of the system?
Fully understanding a complex and dynamic situation requires examining it from a variety of perspectives. The conceptual framework for this research is based on looking at a "slice" of the present (portions of one academic year) to understand (1) the past from which it came, (2) the present (in terms of influences, results and dilemmas), and (3) the perceptions of future destinations held by the various people involved.
To understand more of how changes over time have and are occurring, it was necessary to examine the dynamics of the situation including the following. (1) What influences (e.g., pressures, supports or barriers) have affected these reforms? (2) What have been the results of these reforms? (3) What dilemmas have arisen for the various actors in these reform efforts?
A crucial aspect of the conceptual framework for the research was examining the results from a systemic perspective and considering all the influences in their totality and with their many interactions.
The case studies were conducted in nine middle schools and senior high schools spread across the country. Selected on the basis of success in implementing currently advocated reforms, they included three mathematics departments, three science departments and three in which higher order thinking was being pursued across the disciplines. Each case study was conducted by a researcher using standard case study methodologies who spent 20 or more days on site.
The cross-site analysis examined the nature of the reforms, barriers to the reforms, and essentials for attaining the reforms. These three foci were each examined within three dimensions: technical, political, and cultural. The results of the cross-site analysis are reflected in the implications presented below.
Generally, students at the sites under study performed as well on conventional standardized tests as students in traditional programs. New forms of assessment often were being developed to test for other outcomes not prominent in the goals of traditional instruction. Student excitement about learning and interest in the subject matter was evidenced by increased student enrollment in elective portions of the reformed programs.
Although federal and state resources often were influential in initiating the reforms described in the case studies, the dollar amount expended for a given site was relatively small. By and large, local expenditures remained at normal levels, although resources often were reallocated to meet redefined needs.
- The complex and fundamental reforms advocated by the reformers are not easy to establish, but they are appropriate and worthy of pursuit.
- Time is a major dilemma for teachers in the reform context. While teachers find that the time pressures let up as they become more successful in implementing their reforms, it is apparent that the time demands of the reforms are a dilemma for teachers.
- Expect the reform process to extend over a long period of time. The reforms cannot be hurried; they take years, not months.
- Of central importance to the reforms are changed values and beliefs about the goals of instruction and the means of fostering this learning. To reform education in the full sense demands more than the acquisition of new teaching strategies and techniques.
- Teacher learning is central to the process of reform, both in its own right and as a foundation for the required learning on the part of students and parents. The most important learning takes place in the context of collaborative work with other teachers, rather than in formal instructional settings.
- Parent learning is an important part of the reform process, although the time it requires presents a significant challenge.
- Students must be enabled to engage in new roles and perform new forms of student work. Establishing new student roles and student work probably is the true "bottom line" of reform.
- Recognize that reform will hang in the balance for a long time. A critical breakdown in some aspect of the systemic support system that sustains the reforms could result in their abandonment at any point over an extended period of time.
- At the same time, there is no going back on certain aspects of the reforms. While noting that reform will hang in the balance for a long time, one must also recognize that individual teachers who have successfully initiated these reforms in their own classes generally make convincing claims that their teaching has been changed permanently and they will never go back to the "old ways."
- A systemic view is essential. It is obvious that these cases of successful reform are marked by attention to a multiplicity of factors in a manner that takes account of their interconnections. This multiplicity of factors is addressed simultaneously and in concert.
- Reform is an ongoing process. Under the right conditions it can be expected to continue in schools, departments and individuals--probably at an uneven rate, but with a continuing overall movement toward reform.
Of the many research topics worthy of further research, a few have the potential of an especially strong effect; they are the ones deserving of additional research.
- The results of this research strengthen the conviction that research in ordinary schools under everyday conditions is needed most. The process of making desired changes under ordinary school conditions is not the same as many of the "special" setting in which research is often conducted.
- A closely related idea is to approach the research systemicly. The educational reforms being promoted today, the context in which these changes are being sought, and the various processes of fostering change are decidedly complex. Under these circumstances it is essential to approach the research systemicly.
- Focus future research on student roles and student work. A critical finding of the cross-site analysis is that changes in the roles of students and in the nature of the work they do is at the heart of educational reform. A related finding of the research is that in the cases studied, a failure to bring about the desired level of change in this arena was almost universal. Thus, the highest priority for future research has to be given to how such changes can be attained.
- Teacher Learning Needs Major Attention. Changes in students' roles and work will come about through the work of teachers in classrooms. Thus, the role of teachers needs major attention to understand better just how they can foster these student changes. The results of the cross-site analysis emphasize that teacher learning is central to educational reform and that (1) it apparently takes place most readily in collaborative work contexts, and (2) hinges upon changes in values and beliefs. Research is needed to understand more fully the collaboration that must be developed, especially in the day-to-day work context, but also through inservice education and through conferences and networks. More understanding is needed of learning organizations--in terms of both teachers and students--and how it is related to values and beliefs, both individually and collectively.
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[Acknowledgments] 
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[Summary Review of Literature]