A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

The Cross-Site Analysis Process

Analysis across sites began early in the case study process. Half-day meetings of the researchers were held approximately every three weeks during the research to identify common themes, compare results and plan subsequent data collection to test emerging understandings.

Conceptual framework. The framework used to synthesize the nine case studies below is drawn partially from a commissioned paper prepared for the Curriculum Reform Project entitled "Building Explanations Across Case Studies: A Framework for Synthesis" (Rossman, 1992). Of two alternatives provided there, a conceptual framework with the following three dimensions was employed.

Technical. Professional knowledge and skills, and the means by which they are acquired.
Political. Matters of authority, power and influence, including the negotiation and resolution of conflicts and moral issues of justice and fairness.
Cultural. Values, beliefs and school norms--both in terms of a general ethos and competing perspectives that contend with each other.

These three analysis dimensions have been "crossed" with three other major foci found within the cases: the nature of the reform sought, barriers to reform and essential ingredients of attaining reforms. Together they form the matrix pictured below which is used as the conceptual framework for the synthesis.

	Nature of Reform	Barriers to Reform	Essentials of Reform
TECHNICAL DIMENSION	*	*	*
POLITICAL DIMENSION	*	*	*
CULTURAL DIMENSION	*	*	*

Embedded within this conceptual framework are a number of important themes, concepts and perspectives, some of which could have been used as dimensions of an alternative framework for the synthesis. One theme used throughout the cases is the notion of dilemma, especially as experienced by teachers. This conception does not have a specific location in the analysis framework, but rather is a matter of continuing consideration and discussion throughout. In particular, it is prominent in the discussion of barriers to reform.

Although not used as an explicit dimension in the conceptual framework, a dimension labelled "personal" was considered for inclusion. This personal dimension would have included, individual professional competencies, postures toward various political or policy initiatives, and personal values and beliefs, matters which are addressed respectively within the (1) technical, (2) political, and (3) cultural dimensions. Because it cuts across all three other dimensions, establishing "personal" as a separate dimension did not seem useful.

The personal considerations of people--especially teachers--involved in the reforms are prominent throughout the cases and interact with most aspects of them. As a result, discussion of these personal considerations will be found throughout all three dimensions of the cross-site analysis: technical, political and cultural. They will be noted most often with respect to the cultural dimension, however, because of their connection to values and beliefs. While considered most often in this cultural context, values and beliefs are clearly personal matters as well; individual values and beliefs may be in conflict with those of the school or department culture. Many of the dilemmas faced by teachers are related to various values and beliefs they hold.

An important orientation in developing the case studies has been the use of alternative perspectives, including especially: psychological, philosophical, socio-cultural, subject matter, and economic perspectives. They are important both as epistemological viewpoints and as realms of understanding that can inform a matter under consideration. Although not used as the conceptual framework, they have been kept in mind throughout the analysis and writing. These perspectives cut across all of the dimensions, but psychological perspectives are particularly relevant to the technical dimension, socio-cultural perspectives to the cultural dimension, subject matter perspectives to both the technical and cultural dimensions, economic perspectives to the political dimension and philosophical perspectives to all dimensions.

Analysis process. The actual cross-site analysis process itself included the following eight phases (after Rossman, 1992), the first two of which were completed in the process of defining and conducting the nine case studies.

Phase 1: Beginning. This phase entails locating the areas of interest that will provide the focus of the cross-site analysis.

Phase 2: Bounding the scope. "This phase places initial boundaries on the scope of the synthesis."

Phase 3: Inventorying the cases. This phase requires describing the following:

Focus. Describe the focus such as "the curriculum itself, implementation strategies, instructional practices, student outcomes, professional development, the culture of the classroom, professional associations or state agencies. The researcher should identify the primary focus of each case study and list it, perhaps in a matrix to facilitate comparison among the cases."
Goals. Identify and list each study's goals to help "the researcher understand the study's implications and potential parallels with others."
Scope. Identify the level of analytic interest, e.g., individual or nation, as well as the intensity of data collection and its duration.
Complexity. Identify the complexity, e.g., the number of classrooms involved and the mix of research methods.
Organization. Is the case organized "temporally, thematically, by individuals (students, teachers), or by some other means. These structures are part of the conceptual framework of the study and shape the conclusions presented."
Audience. Who is the audience for the report?

Phase 5: Developing an interpretation of each case. "After immersion in the set of cases under consideration, the researcher focuses on each case in turn to identify the key metaphors that illustrate the central meaning(s) of the cases. This may be driven by a conceptual framework constructed prior to beginning the syntheses (always held tentatively, however) or may be more purely inductive ... lists of metaphors, concepts, and themes as expressed in phrases or vignettes are useful to construct. These represent the interpretations of the cases. The challenge here is to develop interpretations sufficiently general to be comparable to the other cases yet grounded in the details of the specific case."

Phase 6: Juxtaposing the cases. "Here analogic reasoning comes to the forefront as the researcher compares and contrasts the various interpretations. One case is like another in what ways? different? extends and elaborates? How do the central metaphors relate to one another both within the cases and across cases? Which metaphors provide the most explanatory power to capture the essences of the cases? Which metaphors most cogently, elegantly, and economically describe the set of cases? This process entails comparing themes, metaphors, and explanatory stories across cases. During this phase, it is likely that comparing the interpretations will lead to new insights into the cases--a reconceptualization of the entire work. Here, as in Phase 2, the use of matrices can enliven the process."

Phase 7: Synthesizing the cases. "'We are no longer dealing just with observables [cases] but also with unobservables [interpretations], and are connecting the two with successive layers of inferential glue.' This 'inferential glue' is the stuff of synthesis, a grounded theory of the subject that tells us something new while preserving the sometimes contradictory specifics of the cases."

Phase 8: Writing the synthesis. "This final phase entails writing the synthesis which should be true to the original purpose of the work, crisp in style, loyal to the details of the cases, but provide a more complex understanding of the subject than does any single case." (Rossman, 1992)

Systemic perspective. While a cross-site analysis of cases based on a 9 cell matrix has the potential of appearing as a set of discrete components, a major theme of this analysis is the interconnectedness of the many components. It is important to consider the interactions found across the cells. Maintaining a systemic perspective is essential. Subsequent attention to models based on the work of Senge is a logical culmination of the analysis.

The following presentation of the analysis is organized into three major sections based on the three case foci identified above: the nature of the reform sought, barriers to reform and essential ingredients of successful reforms. Within each of these sections attention will be given to the three analysis dimensions: technical, political, and cultural.
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[Cross-Site Analysis of the Case Studies of Curriculum Reform]

[Nature of the Reforms]