A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

Education Reforms and Students At Risk - October 1996

Discussion

Clearly, characteristics of high-reliability programs overlap substantially with those of school community. The two concepts are not independent; rather, high-reliability organizations may facilitate the development of schools as learning communities (see Table 3). Below, we explore the ways in which high-reliability organizations enable the development of learning communities.

Shared Vision, Purpose, and Values

Establishing and periodically reviewing program goals can build consensus in the community on the purpose of the program. Goals must be clear. In School E, for example, ambiguity of program goals grew into conflict between teachers and administrators. High consensus on program goals contributed to, or derive from, consensus on more amorphous areas such as values. In School K, for example, teachers reached consensus on their goals for the Success for All program as part of the process of selecting the program. The stakeholders, including district staff, agreed on both the content and the urgency of the goals. Subsequently, staff at School K clearly agreed on values and a shared vision. In School I, on the other hand, a superficial agreement to written goals seemed to mask marked conflict on the vision and purpose of the program. Although there were written goals for the program, the two primary goals, (1) improve students' academic, especially English, abilities and (2) promote affective development and love of learning, were not overtly recognized and coordinated. Rather, they became opposing rallying points for teachers. Without this initial agreement, teachers saw a conflict in values between assimilation and respect for language-minority students, and discussion of shared vision, purpose, or values quickly became a heated, defensive battle. School E offers a more subtle example of the relationship between program mission and shared vision, values, and purpose. This program operated under abstract goals and, because of minimal or adverse interactions with the new superintendent, reacted to short-term concerns rather than a long-term mission. Teaching staff were unable to arrive at any common vision, purpose, or values.

Consensus on vision, purpose, and values can become fragmented without constant maintenance. Establishing standard operating procedures which support the primary goals of the school can help institutionalize consensus and simplify repetitive tasks. Periodically

reviewing these procedures can ensure that protocol continues to reflect goals throughout the growth of the program. For example, one goal of School A's Cooperative Alternative Program is to refocus students with a history of school-related problems on academic development. The Cooperative Alternative Program adopted a procedure for minimizing conflict before large management problems developed. As more effective procedures have become available, School A has trained teachers to modify their techniques. Administrative support and staff knowledge of management strategies ensure that discipline never becomes a crisis, and teachers and students can focus on academic development.

Evaluation also can realign teachers and administrators to common goals. For example, School B closely monitors each students' activities and progress, serving two functions. First, students' development is constantly being compared to the school's standard of high academic achievement, and so all stakeholders -- students, parents, teachers, and administrators -- are continuously aware of student progress in relation to school goals. Second, parents can judge whether teachers' activities are in synch with school academic goals by reviewing their children's records.

Incorporation of Diversity

The high-reliability organization promotes incorporation of diversity through its emphasis on mission, management, and professionalism. A clear mission can forestall intolerance among staff. As suggested by School I's summer migrant program, ambiguous goals create a space for staff to form their own, sometimes divisive, priorities. A management policy of mutual monitoring can prevent differential treatment of students.

Highly professional staff can help promote incorporation of diversity. Staff hiring decisions can be based, in part, on an individual's ability to accept differences. For example, after difficulty with the initial staff, School A's Cooperative Alternative Program made a policy decision to require of new hires, as a first cut, ability and interest in working with at-risk students. Given the staff and student population, targeted lessons can ameliorate student prejudices. For example, mixed race acceptance and interaction are especially evident among students at Schools D and K, where multicultural topics are incorporated in the curriculum, and at School J, where teachers deliberately model acceptance of other cultures.

Communication and Participation

The structure of high-reliability organizations provides a stable platform on which to build good communication and participation across the community. A standard procedure for discussion, whether formal or simply understood, allows staff to discuss minor issues before they become crises. For example, teachers at several schools use "sidewalk meetings," as they supervise bus loading, to raise matters of concern with each other and the principals. At other schools, teachers share information and build oral histories about individual students during regularly scheduled team planning time. Staff development, which helps teachers construct a common language, can facilitate communication among staff, and peer training improves staff participation. Teachers at School H, where staff development is based on teacher presentations, are particularly supportive and involved in training. These teachers interact frequently outside of training sessions, and sometimes outside of school.

Caring, Trust, and Teamwork

The long-range perspective of high-reliability organizations can provide a stable, secure environment for staff to develop collegial trust and caring, and to improve team processes. In School E, frequent turnover of administrative and district staff precipitated short-term crises, made some teachers cautious about the security of their program, and emboldened opponents. One teacher pointed out that because "the rug has been pulled out so many times, we're reluctant to stand on it and say that's gospel." In School J, on the other hand, teachers had 10 years of consistent experience in collegial working through of tough decisions. Faculty believed that the group would be allowed to reach consensus on matters related to core tasks and that those decisions would be acted upon.

Clear role definition also contributes to the functioning of the team by ensuring constant leadership and distributing responsibilities among staff. At School I, for example, teacher committees are responsible for the daily functioning of the program. The principal directs issues to the appropriate committee chair, and checks that the issues are addressed. The Mental Health Team at School L addresses matters related to student or staff emotional well being. These structures involve staff in the effort to nurture caring and trust in the community.

Over years, the development of caring, trust, and teamwork never evolve by chance. Targeted training can help staff learn to work as a supportive unit. For example, learning partners at School H meet monthly to work and plan. Some partners also meet informally to extend the collegial sharing.

Respect and Recognition

Respect and recognition of teachers and of students tend to occur together, and not necessarily in the context of community respect for either teachers or students. This phenomenon suggests that it is possible to build a community based on respect and recognition, despite extracommunity judgments. Several high-reliability-organization characteristics contribute to community esteem.

When a program's mission is clear, and standard operating procedures include regular evaluation, it is easier to recognize and honor a job well done. School B maintains a high academic standard, using a standard curriculum. Students' folders show clear evidence of their progress through the curriculum, and students' accomplishments are visible on the walls of the classrooms and halls. Evaluation also provides opportunity for teacheraffirmation. Granting additional responsibilities, as School I does with committee chairs, is another recognition of especially competent teachers.

Conclusion

Together, the characteristics of high-reliability organizations help construct school communities conducive to academic learning and affective development in all students. Not all of the programs we visited functioned as high-reliability organizations; those that did not tended to be less successful at developing learning communities. Although we examined a small number of sites, the intersection of structural characteristics and community development illuminate a promise of schools geared towards helping at-risk students.

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TABLE 3. Relationship of High-Reliability Organizations to Characteristics of Learning Communities

[Cross-Site Analysis Part 3] [Assessment of the Outcome of Reforms]