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The Gymnasium has historically been the domain of the select few, yet it has opened its doors to unprecedented numbers of young people in the past few decades. Pupils who demonstrate superior academic ability and who display potential are recommended for promotion to the Gymnasium. The lower level of the Gymnasium extends from grade 5 or 6 to grade 10. At the end of the 10th grade, pupils may qualify for the upper level Gymnasium, covering grades 11-13 (grades 11-12 in 4 Länder). The upper level (Gymnasiale Oberstufe) constitutes the period when pupils prepare for the Abitur examinations. The successful completion of these examinations entitles them to study at a university or a Fachhochschule (polytechnic). After grade 10 of the Gymnasium, some pupils continue their education until age 18 by attending a Fachgymnasium, an upper level institution that combines academic work with full- or part-time on-the-job apprenticeships. In some states, a sizeable proportion of graduates with the Abitur come from these schools.
Curriculum
In grades 5-10, the curriculum varies according to the type of school attended. This may range from an emphasis on classical languages and mathematics/science to modern languages and special arts programs, among other areas of study. Generally, at least two and, in some cases, three foreign languages are required, including English. There is compulsory instruction in core subject areas, including German, two foreign languages, history, geography, mathematics, science, art/music, physical education, and civics, with elective courses available. Subjects are taught at both a basic and an advanced level, the latter involving more rigorous content and additional hours of instruction. (Basic and advanced courses are scheduled for 2 to 3 and 5 to 6 hours per week, respectively.)
Pupils begin preparing for the Abitur at the beginning of the 12th year. Over the next 2 years, they must take a total of 28 courses, 22 at the basic level and 6 at the advanced level. They must also choose four subjects in which they will eventually take the Abitur. At least one of these must be chosen from each of the following three areas of knowledge:
In addition, courses in at least two fields must be taken at the advanced course level.
Historical Overview
The 1960s signaled a turning point for the Gymnasium. A 1967 article that appeared in the Comparative Education Review posited that "the adjustment of the educational system to the socioeconomic and cultural development of the mid-twentieth century has not really taken place in Germany," in contrast to other European countries. The authors, Robinsohn and Kuhlmann, describe the conservatism of the postwar period as a "product of the overwhelming desire to recapture material well-being and social stability and a distrust of 'new beginnings' and experiments" (p. 311). As the institution which had prepared pupils for university study and indirectly produced the country's intellectual and professional elite since the former's founding, the Gymnasium was the "jewel of the German educational crown" (Fishman and Martin 1987, p. 115).
The Gymnasium came under attack as an elitist institution incapable of responding to the demands for greater equality of educational opportunity and the growing need for qualified personnel. In his 1964 book Die Deutsche Bildungskatastrophe (The German Educational Catastrophe), Georg Picht portrayed the existing educational inequality as a grave threat to the economy, and called for doubling the number of Abitur holders. Since then, the percentage of the age cohort enrolled at institutions of higher education has quadrupled, rising from 8.7 percent in the early 1960s to 37 percent in l991. Aside from the massive increase in the number of pupils gaining admission to the Gymnasium, the radical qualitative changes that the Gymnasium has undergone since the 1960s can best be understood through an analysis of the major reforms of the past 30 years.
Saarbrücken Outline Agreement of 1960. The precursor to the landmark reform of 1972 was the Saarbrücken Outline Agreement (Rahmenvereinbarung) of 1960, which was a reaction to the rising tide of dissatisfaction on the part of many pupils with the expanding curriculum of the Gymnasium.
The agreement was, of course, geared decidedly toward the Abitur, which necessitated a great deal of pressure to reach high academic standards in a wide range of subjects. The resulting encyclopaedism had long been one of the less acceptable features of the Gymnasium, but with syllabi tending to expand rather than contract, the pressure, especially on pupils in the upper forms, had increased (Hearnden 1974, p. 227).
The Saarbrücken Agreement reduced the number of compulsory subjects and increased the range of optional courses pupils could take, while promoting the training of pupils in intellectual independence and responsibility. The agreement also prescribed a set of core courses for the various types of Gymnasien (classical language, modern language, and mathematics-science). In grades 12 and 13, known as the Oberstufe (upper level), all pupils were henceforth required to take community studies (history, geography, social studies), physical education, and music. The purpose of the 11th grade, which also became part of the upper level, was to round out and reinforce pupils' knowledge and skills.
Although the Saarbrücken Agreement had originally been formulated in response to the perception that the curriculum of the Gymnasium was too broad, it was later criticized for being too comprehensive. One of the perceived dangers of the 9-year Gymnasium was its overemphasis on general education that precluded the opportunity for specialization. This, in turn, provided insufficient preparation for university study.
Bonn Agreement of 1972. In 1972, the KMK agreed upon the most comprehensive reform of the upper level in the history of the Gymnasium. The purpose of the Agreement on the Reorganization of the Upper Secondary Level (hereafter Bonn Agreement) was to "orient the upper secondary sector more closely to the demands of a changing society as well as the needs of the younger generation" (Conference of Ministers of Education [KMK] 1989, p. 165). More specifically, the Bonn Agreement was motivated by the expansion of the education system fueled by demands for increased social mobility, and a changing economic situation that required a more highly educated, better skilled workforce. The Reformierte Oberstufe (reformed upper level of the gymnasium), which was introduced in most Länder in the 1976?77 academic year and revised in the 1980s, instituted several major changes in the structure and curriculum of the upper secondary level.
First, with the exception of Bavaria, the upper level was no longer structured according to specialization of the school. The Bonn Agreement also replaced the existing system of fixed classroom teaching with a system of course instruction. The compulsory areas of study included:
Within these prescribed areas, the curriculum was divided into basic (Grundkurse) and specialized, or advanced, courses (Leistungskurse). The rationale behind this newly constituted curriculum was that it would permit a high degree of specialization without sacrificing the benefits of general education.
Basic and advanced courses differ in a number of respects:
Instead of having to take more than 10 subjects, students in the 11th through 13th grades can individualize their course of study and concentrate on a select number of subjects covering the three fields of study.
However, some specific curricular requirements were retained. During the four semesters of grades 12 and 13, pupils are required to take a total of 22 semester hours (hours per week per semester) in area 1 (languages, literature, fine arts), 22 semester hours in area 3 (mathematics-science), and 16 semester hours in area 2 (social sciences). In addition, they must enroll at either level in at least two semesters of German and a foreign language, two semesters in literature and the arts, four in the sciences, and two in mathematics. Pupils must also choose two advanced courses, one of which must be either mathematics or a science. The second can be selected from a group of courses ranging from philosophy to physics to computer science.
The Bonn Agreement represented a radical departure from the traditional definition of general education, along with a recognition of the need for greater educational freedom of choice. In the aftermath of the reforms, however, a number of prominent leaders and scholars in education began to voice serious doubts about the ability of upper secondary graduates to undertake university study. In 1984, the president of the West German Rectors' Conference called into question the level of preparedness (Studierfähigkeit) of the majority of entering university students.
In the late 1970s, the Land of Baden-Württemberg, for example, unilaterally responded to complaints from its higher education and private sectors over what was perceived to be a lack of basic knowledge in mathematics, German, and foreign languages by imposing its own standards. The Ministry of Education mandated that all pupils enroll in German, mathematics, one foreign language, one science, and history up to the Abitur. Furthermore, the number of advanced course options was reduced, and the weighting of basic and advanced courses as part of the final grade was changed from a ratio of 1:3 to 1:2. The value of the written Abitur was also upgraded. These measures anticipated the changes that were later made on a national level.
New requirements for the Abitur. In 1987, the KMK amended the Bonn Agreement with the introduction of new minimum requirements for the Abitur. This "Reform of the Reform" was intended to correct the aforementioned problem resulting from specialization and excessive freedom of choice by preventing pupils from dropping "difficult" subjects and obtaining their Abitur in "easy" subjects ("Higher Standards" 1987). The goal of strengthening pupils' basic knowledge was to be accomplished by revising the entire grading scale. For each course, the grade that pupils receive, ranging from 1 (very good) to 6 (failing), is converted to a 15-, 30-, or 45-point scale and added into the final grade for the Abitur. In 1972, basic courses, advanced courses, and the Abitur examination each had a total maximum weight of 300 points. In 1987, the weight for basic courses was increased to 330 points, while the advanced courses received only 210 points. As a result, pupils who received good grades only in advanced courses would earn approximately 30 percent fewer points in the post-1987 Abitur. In addition, the number of required basic courses was increased from 20 to 22, while the number of advanced courses was reduced from 8 to 6.
The "Reform of the Reform" also required all pupils to be continuously enrolled in at least two of the following subjects (three in the Rhineland-Palatinate and the Saarland): German, a foreign language, or mathematics. At least two semesters of history or another social science subject with a historical focus were also required. Finally, if German was taken as a first advanced course, one of the four Abitur examination subjects must be mathematics or a foreign language (Conference of Ministers of Education 1987).
Whereas the basic and advanced courses and the Abitur examinations were of equal value in determining the final grade under the original agreement, the most recent revision of the 1972 agreement (1988) shifts the performance weighting from the advanced to the basic courses. The difference between the 1972 and 1988 versions of the agreement is that the former weighted the basic and advanced courses at a ratio of 1:3, which made it more "profitable" for pupils to focus on specialization at the expense of general education (Führ 1989).
In one-semester basic and advanced courses, the maximum number of attainable points was 15 and 45, respectively. These courses are now allotted 15 and 30 points, respectively. When translated into percentages, this means that the results from the basic and advanced courses make up 65 percent of the total Abitur grade, as opposed to 30 percent each under the 1972 agreement.
The Gymnasium in Modern Germany
In the past three decades, the Gymnasium has been transformed from a bastion of elitism into a mass institution that more closely reflects social and economic realities. It has assumed a key role in preparing future generations to confront the challenges of tomorrow. In contrast to the United States, which awards high school diplomas on the basis of successful completion of a prescribed number of courses whose content and standards differ from state to state, there is a clearly articulated relationship in Germany between the curricula and the examinations required to gain the qualification necessary for university admission?the link between what is taught and what is tested.
Just as examinations reveal the knowledge and skills that are valued in the curriculum, they also indicate broader educational priorities. In spite of regional differences and ongoing debates about the value of the Abitur from one Land to the next, the Abitur examinations are based on a set of national guidelines that reflect a broad-based and rigorous curriculum and the highest standards of educational excellence (Ashwill 1991).
The reforms described above form the basis of the Abitur examination, which is administered in four subjects consisting of two advanced courses, one basic course in the written examination, and an oral examination in a fourth subject. All three fields of study must be represented. Either German, a foreign language taken for at least 3 years, or mathematics must comprise one of the Abitur subjects. As indicated above, examinees must take mathematics or a foreign language if they elect to take German as their first advanced examination.
The standards for all examinations are set by the KMK in the form of "uniform examination requirements" issued for virtually every subject taught in German Gymnasium. This by-product of the Bonn Agreement ensures a high degree of comparability among the various Länder without encroaching on their cultural sovereignty. Each examination subject must be covered by these guidelines. The three requirement areas that cover the cognitive skills examinations are supposed to test the reproduction and application of knowledge or skills and problem solving. Basic and advanced course examinations last 4 and 5 hours, respectively, depending upon the subject in question.
The Abitur examination is administered at the end of the final Gymnasium year (grade 13). Examinations may be taken only after continuous work in at least two of the following subjects: German, a foreign language (one chosen before entering the upper secondary level), and mathematics. The Abitur certificate is awarded on the basis of a combination of the student's grades over the final 2 years of coursework and scores on the examinations. (If there is a discrepancy between course grades and examination scores, candidates can be asked to take additional oral examinations.) Of 840 total possible points, 540 are derived from coursework (330 from the 22 basic courses, or Grundkurse, and 210 from the 6 advanced courses, or Leistungskurse), and 300 from the examinations. A total score of 280 is considered passing. In 1991, more than 95 percent of Gymnasium students passed their Abitur examinations.
The various education ministries are responsible for defining the course content for each subject in accordance with a set of guidelines developed at the national level by the Standing Conference of Ministers of Education (KMK). The KMK also determines issues such as eligibility to receive the Abitur and the number and distribution of subjects in which pupils must be examined. In spite of curricular differences across state boundaries, these guidelines result in a set of comparable examinations that enable Germany's education system to maintain a fairly high degree of uniformity.
In most Länder, teachers are responsible for developing the Abitur examinations and grading them. Topics and problems are selected on the basis of level of difficulty to ensure comparability between schools. In other states, Abitur examinations are created and graded at the state ministry level. Seven of Germany's 16 Länder (Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Thuringia, Saarland, Saxony, and Saxony-Anhalt) have a state Abitur system based on a standardized national curriculum where the requirements in the various subjects are set by the central ministry. Students in these states take a standardized statewide examination in each subject.
In recent years, there have been calls, especially from the more conservative Länder, to centrally define the Abitur requirements in all Länder. An example of this is an attempt by the Bavarian minister of education to deny access to Bavarian universities for applicants from other German Länder whose Abitur certificate did not guarantee broad general education. In Bavaria, German, mathematics, and one modern language (although not compulsory examination subjects in the Abitur) cannot be dropped by pupils. Therefore, even if candidates have chosen other subjects for the examination, they must attend classes in these basic subjects through the end of upper secondary schooling, and take at least six written tests in each subject throughout the school year.
A vivid illustration of the educational market value of the Abitur and the controversy surrounding comparability of standards within the context of a unified Germany was the unwillingness of some West German states to accord unlimited recognition to the East German Abitur after unification. The Central Admissions Agency in Dortmund noted that the inflationary nature of the grades awarded at East German schools was a major problem in the admissions process. (The average Abitur grade of 50 percent of all applicants from the former East Germany was between a 1.0 and a 1.4, equivalent to an A or A- average; less than 1 percent received less than a "satisfactory" [3] on a grading scale of 1 to 5.)
The Abitur is the most popular and direct means of entering a university. With the transition of the Gymnasium from an elite to a mass institution, the number of students receiving the Abitur has transcended the capacity of the university system. (There are currently about 900,000 study places for 1.8 million students.) Consequently, admission restrictions (numerus clausus) have been applied to a number of high-demand university disciplines, including medicine, dental medicine, and veterinary medicine. In addition to the Abitur and course grades, pupils wishing to undertake study in these areas are subjected to additional testing and interviews. Other restricted areas of study include architecture, business management, pharmacy, law, computer science, and surveying. The awarding of a study place is determined by a complex point system, Abitur marks, special test results, and length of time on a waiting list. The overcrowding at universities has led to a debate over the merits of a university entrance examination, or test, to replace the Abitur.
The Fachhochschulreife (qualification for Fachhochschule admission) is gained through the final examination at a technical secondary school (Fachoberschule). This includes a written examination in four subjects (German, mathematics, and a foreign language, plus one other subject). Students must also take oral examinations in each of these subjects and in a vocationally oriented subject (Führ 1989). Fachhochschulen (colleges or polytechnics) train students in the practical applications of scientific knowledge (e.g., design, construction, and development in engineering or public administration in the fields of law, economics, and social sciences). Their purpose is to prepare students to assume high-level administrative positions in technical fields.
Germany is a pluralistic society with a multitude of conflicting interests and goals, yet it has succeeded in establishing national standards with respect to the school curriculum and the Abitur examination. In November 1993, Chancellor Helmut Kohl convened an educational policy summit to discuss various education reforms needed to meet social demand and maintain Germany's international competitiveness. Among the most pressing educational challenges facing the united Germany are the comparability of the Abitur and the upper secondary curriculum among the Länder; the future of the Hauptschule; the continued viability of the dual training system in the former East Germany in view of the critical shortage of training positions; the reduction in the length of primary and secondary education from 13 to 12 years in the former East Germany (which has been provisionally recognized by the Conference of Ministers of Education); the existence of competing schools at the lower secondary level in an era of shrinking financial resources and demographic change (i.e., in the former East Germany); and the desirability of adding an upper secondary qualification (Berufsausbildung mit Abitur), which allows pupils to receive the dual qualification of an upper secondary completion certificate and vocational training.
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[Components of National Education Standards in Germany - References]