![[Table of Contents]](/icons/up.gif){kind=icon}
Three components of national standards in Germany are emphasized in this chapter:
Particular attention is paid to the Gymnasium (general-academic secondary school) and the upper secondary completion examination (Abitur) as examples of how standards are established and applied on a national level.
The Federal Republic of Germany has 16 states, each with its own ministry of education and distinctive set of political, religious, and cultural traditions. While Germany is a relatively homogeneous nation, its constitution guarantees the cultural sovereignty of each state. The responsibility for primary and secondary schooling in Germany rests with the state and local authorities. The federal role in education is limited mainly to the regulation of educational and training assistance, including vocational education, and the promotion of scientific research.
While all German states have basically the same educational structure and core curriculum, abide by the uniform examination requirements for the Abitur, and recognize school completion credentials from around the country, there are notable differences in actual practice. Many aspects of schooling in the states of central and northern Germany differ markedly from those in the southern German Länder. For example, Abitur examinations in Bavaria are created by the Ministry of Education in Munich and distributed to the schools in sealed envelopes on the day of the examination, while Hessian teachers from each Gymnasium submit proposed examination questions to the authorities for approval. Some additional examples reflect the variability among states:
Regional differences can also be observed in the reconstituted states of the former East Germany, where the educational structures and priorities tend to reflect the political constellation of each state government. Accordingly, Brandenburg, which is governed by the Social Democrats (SPD), has promoted the Gesamtschule, while Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia, where Christian Democrats comprise the majority party, have introduced middle schools that combine Realschulen and Hauptschulen (Mitter and Weiss 1993). Like other new states in eastern Germany, Saxony has adopted a model of education from one of the "old" states (Baden-Württemberg), which boasts a centralized Abitur and school-specific curricula. The fact that Germany has no standardized examinations as a means of comparing academic achievement within schools, school forms, states, or between states reveals the extent to which cultural sovereignty is valued and protected.
The Conference of Ministers of Education
In the absence of a centralized national ministry of education in Germany, national standards are established by the Conference of Ministers of Education (Kultursministerkonferenz, or KMK), which performs a national coordinating function. The KMK is an advisory body that attempts to ensure national comparability through joint agreements on examination guidelines, procedures, and requirements.
Founded in 1948, the KMK was created in direct response to the Nazi policy of Gleichschaltung (standardization), which was an attempt to rid the country of regional differences in education and other cultural areas (Eckstein and Noah 1993). The KMK was charged with overseeing the cultural policy of all states within a framework of cultural sovereignty guaranteed by the German constitution. It is a forum in which the individual states coordinate the structures, institutions, curricula, and leaving certificates of their school and higher education systems. Conference resolutions, which must be unanimously approved by all state ministers of education, constitute recommendations to the Länder and only become legally binding when they are promulgated in the form of state laws, decrees, and regulations.
Since the late 1940s, the KMK has issued resolutions on topics ranging from parent-school cooperation and approval of textbooks to improving mathematics and science instruction in the schools. Through the KMK, Germany has developed a set of national standards and guidelines for school forms, mutual recognition of school completion qualifications, and a common curriculum and hours of instruction. This consensus forms the basis for a degree of comparability between states.
In a federalist system that engenders competition between states and tends to limit cooperation, the Germans have succeeded in striking a delicate balance between the two extremes embodied in the American and Japanese school systems. This balance reflects a desire for consensus regarding educational structure, the basic goals of education, course requirements, hours of instruction, and school completion requirements. (A 1993 resolution entitled "Agreement Concerning School Types and Educational Paths in Secondary I Schools" presents a unanimously agreed-upon codification of structure, common goals and characteristics, canon of subjects, number of instructional hours and types of diplomas, and recognition of completion credentials in schools encompassing grades 5?10.)
Over the years, the KMK has addressed a number of important curricular issues, many of which focus on instruction in mathematics and science. In 1968, a resolution presented a detailed justification for "modernizing" mathematics instruction and a set of curricular guidelines encompassing grades 1?13 (Empfehlungen und Richtlinien zur Modernisierung des Mathematikunterichts an den allgemeinbildenden Schulen, 3.10.1968). Among the reasons cited were the connection between increasing the pool of well-trained technical professionals and Germany's economic prosperity, as well as the need for more mathematics and science teachers. The resolution represented an attempt to standardize instruction by recommending specific learning objectives and suggesting a teaching methodology based on the work being carried out in other countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). In spite of its age, the thematic outline for the fourth grade, for example, is remarkably similar to the framework curriculum currently being used in a number of states.
Other resolutions the KMK has approved since 1970 pertaining to mathematics and science include "Improving Mathematics and Science Instruction in the Gymnasien of the Federal Republic of Germany" (1970), "School Experiments as a Means of Improving Science Instruction" (1971), and "Recommendations and Guidelines for Math Instruction in the Elementary School" (1976). Each of these resolutions is the product of educational research and is driven by a common desire to create a set of national standards in key subjects.
Following German unification on October 3, 1990, the ministers of education and cultural affairs in Berlin, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia joined the KMK. Since unification, the KMK's highest priority has been to work with the new states of eastern Germany to create a common and comparable basic structure for primary, secondary, and postsecondary education.
Other Forms of Federal-State Cooperation
One of the most recent examples of cooperation between the Federal Ministry for Education and Science and the states is a European Union initiative focusing on equality of educational opportunity for boys and girls. The 10-point program has spawned research, pilot projects, and staff development in all 16 states. The topics include inservice training related to girls and career choice (Nordrhein-Westfalen), the development of school-specific strategies for the advancement of equality of opportunity among girls and boys (Hamburg), violence against girls (Berlin), fostering scientific and technical education for girls in the Realschule (Hessen), and gender stereotyping in elementary and lower secondary textbooks (Saarland). These projects are designed and carried out by state ministries of education and affiliated institutes, as well as university research institutes. A project in Baden-Württemberg entitled "More Girls in Science Courses" was designed to make teachers aware of the special needs of girls in science instruction, increase the representation of girls and women in curricula and textbooks, and develop a gender-specific teaching methodology for technical and scientific subjects.
In spite of the far-reaching changes of the past 30 years, including the shift from elite to mass education as a means of increasing accessibility and tapping the nation's educational reserves, Germany's traditional tripartite system of education remains intact. While there has been some fraying at the edges, support for a tripartite system of schooling remains strong. This multilayered structure offers a large menu of educational options for children of differing abilities, talents, and interests. Each school form applies a different set of standards, which are an outgrowth of its mission and goals.
Unlike students in the American educational system, German pupils remain together as a group only through the fourth grade (Grundschule), after which they enter one of several school forms which comprise a pyramid of academic achievement:
Dual System of Vocational Education
The German education system is world renowned for its dual training system consisting of part-time general education and on-the-job vocational training for young people, most of whom are graduates of the Hauptschulen and Realschulen. The dual system covers a broad array of fields, including agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, civil service, trades, and the service sector.
Currently, more than 400 officially recognized training programs have been developed by the appropriate federal ministries in cooperation with employers and the Federal Ministry of Education and Science. These training programs are periodically revised to accommodate the changing needs of an increasingly sophisticated economy. Programs for outdated professions are discontinued, while new ones such as those in telecommunications are created.
Examination committees are composed of employers representing chambers of commerce, industry, crafts and agriculture; employee representatives; and vocational education teachers. These committees administer all examinations and award the completion certificates that qualify the pupils as skilled workers (Facharbeiter) or journeymen (Gesellen) (Arbeitsgruppe Bildungsbericht 1994).
Formulation of Educational Policy and Practice
Consistent with the tradition of state control of education, state ministries of education formulate educational policy and practice for the schools within their jurisdiction. They prescribe the number of periods per week and subjects by grade and school type, establish curricular guidelines, and authorize the selection of textbooks. However, while course syllabi are obligatory, teachers have considerable freedom of action through the use of supplemental materials and the methods by which they achieve the prescribed curricular objectives. In spite of the regulations and guidelines developed by the KMK, there are considerable variations from state to state. (For example, Bavarian pupils in grades 1?10 receive 20 percent more instruction as measured by teaching periods than their peers in the city-state of Hamburg.)
Grundschule
In western and eastern Germany, the average Grundschule class consists of 22 and 21 pupils, respectively, and all pupils receive grades twice a year on a point system ranging from 1?6 (1 equaling "very good," and 6 equaling "unsatisfactory"). The weekly hours of instruction range from 19 in the first grade to 26 in the fourth grade.
The Grundschule curriculum encompasses the basic skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic; an introduction to the natural and social sciences and the language arts; sometimes the study of a first foreign language; and the development of qualities such as self-reliance, self-discipline, and problem-solving skills. Less significant in terms of hours of instruction are music, art, religion, and physical education. The main purpose of the Grundschule is to lay the foundation for further education at the secondary level. Thus, the curriculum tends to emphasize character training over the dissemination of knowledge.
While pupils in grades 1 and 2 have a class teacher, third-graders begin to encounter some subject teachers. This shift reflects the increasing emphasis on specialization as pupils approach the lower secondary level. Another indicator of the transition to a higher plane of education is the manner in which some schools weight the curriculum in favor of those subjects that are of greater relevance to secondary education (e.g., mathematics and German), and place less emphasis on music and other subjects perceived to be of lesser importance (Arbeitsgruppe Bildungsbericht 1994).
Orientation Level and Promotion to Secondary School
Compulsory schooling lasts 9 or 10 years in Germany, beginning at age 6. Children in all Länder attend Grundschule (primary school) for 4 years (6 years in Berlin and Brandenburg), after which they continue their education at one of three lower secondary schools. Regardless of which institution is selected, grades 5 and 6 are considered to be an orientation level (Orientierungsstufe) in most Länder. (Bavaria abolished the orientation level in the early 1990s.)
The purpose of the orientation level is to allow for additional assessment, thereby delaying the final decision about placement until the end of the sixth grade. The objectives in grades 5 and 6 are to
The type of secondary school pupils attend is determined by their performance in Grundschule. The pupil's primary teacher provides a written recommendation based on academic achievement and the decision is made by the parents. In practice, this differs somewhat from state to state. In Berlin and Brandenburg, the promotion decision is based on the teacher's recommendation and attainment of a specified grade-point average, while in Baden-Württemberg fourth-grade pupils take centrally created examinations in German and mathematics (Orientierungsarbeiten). The examination results and school grades form the basis for the promotion decision. In 1992?93, 90 percent of all parents in Baden-Württemberg accepted the official placement recommendation. (Parents who disagree must consult with the school and their children must take a battery of comprehensive examinations. If there is still disagreement, the pupils are required to take an entrance examination to gain admission into their school of choice.) In contrast, nearly 30 percent of all pupils in Berlin attended Realschule and Gymnasium against their school's advice. One-third of these individuals switched schools after one semester (Arbeitsgruppe Bildungsbericht 1994).
In 1990?91, approximately 33 percent of German pupils in grades 7 to 9 attended a Hauptschule, 28 percent a Realschule, and 31 percent a Gymnasium. Eight percent were enrolled in comprehensive schools, the majority of which are located in Länder governed by the Social Democrats (SPD).
In spite of the explicit grouping or tracking of pupils based on ability, an inherent part of German education, the system does offer transfer possibilities for academically prepared pupils to change education tracks. The most common upward move is from the Realschule into the Gymnasium to prepare for university study. The transfer figures range from 2 to 16 percent of pupils.
Lower Secondary Curriculum
The curricula of the lower secondary schools (grades 5?10) reflect the importance of a common core of knowledge (Allgemeinbildung, general education) that all students must acquire, regardless of the academic orientation or selectivity of the school. At this level, the core consists of German language and literature, mathematics, social studies (history, geography, civics), the sciences (physics, chemistry, biology), physical education, art and music, and religion. In addition, pupils in all schools study one foreign language, usually English, while those attending the Gymnasium must take a second foreign language.
Hauptschule
The Hauptschule, positioned on the lowest rung of the educational ladder, enrolls about one-third of the age cohort (down from 64 percent in l960). In many areas, it is sometimes referred to as a Restschule (school for the leftovers), which mainly attracts socially disadvantaged German children, pupils with learning disabilities, and foreign children. Immigrant pupils comprise more than 26 percent of the student population in Hauptschulen (Mitter and Weiss 1993).
The Hauptschule lasts through the 9th or 10th year of schooling (depending upon the Land) and prepares pupils to enter the labor force and receive additional training in the form of an apprenticeship. Its graduates are entitled to participate in practical training (apprenticeship in a trade, commerce, industry, or administration) accompanied by part-time attendance at a vocational school, become employed in the lower and middle echelons of civil service with part-time attendance at a vocational school, or attend a full-time vocational school. About one-tenth of all Hauptschule pupils fail to graduate.
In addition to the usual courses, the Hauptschule offers a special subject called Arbeitslehre (introduction to the world of work), which is intended to teach pupils the knowledge and skills needed in the modern economy and to provide guidance in career selection. There are no final examinations at the Hauptschule in most Länder. Among the schools represented in the tripartite system, the Hauptschule has the lowest prestige, a byproduct of declining enrollments, a changing economy, and the educational aspirations of the majority of parents who prefer that their children study at a school that will enable them to earn the university entrance qualification, the Abitur.
Realschule
The Realschule extends through the 10th year of schooling. This school prepares pupils for midlevel, nonprofessional careers while allowing access to upper secondary education and potential university entrance. Since the 1970s, completion of the Realschule has become an entry requirement for some of the more attractive apprenticeship programs. It has also become an increasingly popular alternative route to higher education. Most of its graduates find employment in the service sector.
The Realschule differs from the Hauptschule in several respects. It offers an additional year of schooling and a wider range of subjects, including mandatory foreign language study (i.e., English) with French as an additional option, more advanced courses in mathematics and science, and a balance of prevocational and general education courses. These typically include subjects such as accounting, business, English, and typing. In 7 of the 16 Länder, including Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, the Saarland, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein, and Thüringen, a special examination is administered at the end of the 10th grade.
Graduates are eligible to attend vocational schools on a full-time basis?including the Fachoberschule (technical secondary school), the Berufsfachschule, or a technical Gymnasium (Fachgymnasium)?as well as participate in the dual-training system. Academically qualified pupils have the opportunity to transfer to the upper stage of the Gymnasium at age 16 through transitional classes. More than one-third of all apprentices in industry and trade and more than 50 percent in public service have the Realschule qualification. The remainder receive training as skilled workers.
Continued
-###-
[Components of National Education Standards in Germany - Part 2]