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Providing teachers with more opportunities to think critically about their work with one another and to help devise ways to improve the schools often creates significant challenges for them, some of which they may be ill prepared to tackle. Research findings about how students learn have led to significant shifts in desired outcomes, curriculum design, instructional strategies, and student assessment. Moreover, site-based management draws teachers into decisions about school budget allocations, management, teacher hiring and evaluation, and working conditions. To deal with these new and varied demands, many teachers need to update their knowledge and acquire new knowledge and skills.
In the national survey, the most common strategy (used by 82 percent of the districts) to support school-based reform efforts was the provision of staff development for teachers. Not surprisingly instruction was the most common topic (86 percent of the districts), followed by schoolwide planning (63 percent) and shared decision making (56 percent).
The case study data suggest that, in some schools and districts, professional development not only was common but was taking on a broader definition. In addition to the traditional pattern of providing discrete, one-shot workshops, some schools were seeking new, more flexible approaches to build staff knowledge and skills. First, schools were developing priorities for the many staff development areas in which they felt the need to develop new approaches. Second, schools developed plans for coherent, sustained professional growth programs that provided staff with access to the time and expertise necessary to acquire, implement, and reflect on new approaches over a period of years. Third, schools explored a variety of methods for expanding staff expertise. The most promising approaches for providing meaningful opportunities for professional growth are highlighted.
PLANNING MECHANISMS
A host of promising information and practices can be identified in the areas of curriculum, instruction, learning, and assessment. Studies of teacher effectiveness and professional growth have also yielded productive approaches for collegial interaction and capacity building. Participatory site-based management may ask teachers to learn both the mechanics of running the school (e.g., supplies, buses, special events) and administrative techniques (e.g., conflict resolution, supervision and coaching, staff selection and evaluation). In the successful reform efforts, school staff and members of the community found ways to engage in strategic planning. They developed a vision and goals for their reform effort, then analyzed the school's needs and resources to identify the staff development opportunities they needed most for areas targeted for significant change. Mechanisms for identifying staff development needs ranged from formal surveys, retreats, and design teams, to informal, ongoing staff meetings and targets of opportunity (e.g., a state-sponsored pilot program). What seemed to distinguish successful efforts from struggling initiatives was the systematic analysis of school and staff development needs, available resources, and staff receptivity and capacity. These analyses enabled the school staff to prioritize staff development topics and identify the most suitable types of professional development. Not surprisingly, school staffs that felt oppressed by mandates, overwhelmed by myriad demands, and reluctant to change did not seek, participate in, or implement staff development supporting their schools' reform goals.
South Mission High School followed the Effective Schools process to identify needs and set school and staff development goals. Teachers reported that the classroom observations instituted the first year to monitor the status and progress of the Effective Schools classroom variables focused the entire school on improving instructional practices. A needs assessment administered the second year provided input to the Effective Schools council and seven correlate committees. As a result, staff identified the areas of safety, school climate, and improving academic performance as their highest priorities. Staff development related to these areas included research on student grouping and the adverse effects of tracking, as well as opportunities to visit schools that had eliminated tracking. |
The successful schools had been working on their reform agendas for at least three years. In general, the teachers were building their expertise through a coordinated set of formal staff development sessions from experts and coaches, as well as from informal collegial interactions. The professional growth of the teachers in the successful reform schools thus was developing over a multiyear period. They also had a voice in determining the topics of formal staff development sessions. A significant departure from the age-old "make and take" workshops, the sessions might present a series of related topics, promoting an in-depth understanding of an area, rather than a potpourri of unrelated, "hot" topics. For example, elementary teachers might attend staff development sessions on literature-based reading, writing about literature, writing in the content areas, cooperative learning, and methods for assessing student writing. Furthermore, precious pupil-free staff development days might not be devoted entirely to formal workshops on new information but also to ongoing, follow-up working sessions focusing on teachers' experiences implementing new approaches in their classes. There was evidence that the lecture ("sage on the stage") format was being replaced by the coaching ("guide by the side") format. In these sessions, teachers learn from each other as well as from expert coaches. Finally, release time allotted for collegial collaboration and reflection was becoming more common. Teachers had time to develop new materials and approaches together and to reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of their efforts. Many of the staff development programs and opportunities described by the school staff clearly treated teachers as professionals who could shape their own growth.
The teachers at Cicely Elementary embarked on their curricular reforms four years ago. The program required that teachers make a three-year commitment, and it supports a five-year process for teachers to learn how to develop their own interdisciplinary instruction. In a two-week training institute each summer, teachers develop the theme for the year. Teachers receive two to three release days per month from the district for additional training and coaching. A separate grant supports training for Cicely teachers in collaborative decision making and leadership. The Leadership Team is supported by action teams specializing in areas such as curriculum, staff development, and school organization. The district plans to shift control of eight additional district-sponsored staff development days to the schools. |
The schools had devised an impressive array of methods for promoting teachers' professional growth. The methods differed from the traditional scattering of workshops in two important ways. First, many attempted to bring expertise closer to the school, including helping teachers to become the experts themselves. Second, the methods were based on a vision of professional development that is ongoing and dynamic, designed to develop a continuing capacity to meet unforeseen needs.
To ensure that all teachers in a school had access to new ideas, some sites were creating cadres of teacher-leaders. These individuals received training from outside experts, and then had responsibility for bringing the ideas back to the rest of the teachers in the school. This strategy helped teachers develop the capacity to help each other. Furthermore, advice from colleagues who were actually using innovative approaches in their own classes was often considered more credible than exhortations from researchers.
At Sunset Middle School, reform efforts began with the principal's selecting five teachers to attend a summer institute on the middle school concept at an out-of-state institution of higher education. These five teachers returned with some of the skills and knowledge to begin leading the change effort. One of the changes implemented was the formation of the Program Improvement Council (PIC). The PIC is made up of administrators and teacher representatives and is the decision-making body of the school. The PIC creates a structure and an opportunity to build teacher-leaders who go on to lead components of their school reform efforts. |
Some schools and districts arranged for periodic visits to other schools. Teachers traveled to other schools that had already begun experimenting with new ideas. In large metropolitan areas, school visitations could be accomplished during a staff development day by simply driving across town. In other cases, special funding could be obtained to fund travel to more distant spots. Observing innovations firsthand seems to overcome one of the shortcomings of workshops given by outside experts. Teachers frequently complain that the presentations of theory, research, and recommendations often seem too abstract. For many teachers, "show me how it works" is the credibility test of a new approach.
At Edgemont Junior High School, the opportunity to visit and learn from the experiences of middle schools in other districts had a profound effect. Edgemont teachers had been reeling from the number of reforms being initiated at their school. The teachers' visits to other middle schools convinced them that the schedule for Edgemont's dramatic reform, transition to a middle school, was much too rushed. The teachers' concerns convinced the principal and the district to rethink the schedule and scale of middle school implementation efforts. |
Some of the schools built new relationships with universities. They approached local universities to develop ways teachers could learn new techniques and receive credit as well. In some cases, courses were held at the school site.
Empire High School has developed a close working relationship with the local university. University professors serve on the Design Team, which is in charge of planning the restructuring of both the high school and the middle school. Furthermore, Empire has formed a partnership with the university that includes on-site teacher preparation for university students and on-site in-service for Empire teachers at the school site. |
Schools also were finding ways to pool resources to build ongoing capacity. Many schools reside within areas served by state-funded regional service centers, such as the county offices of education in California. One mission of these centers is to serve as professional development resources. Also, large districts may have their own staff development departments. Federally funded regional laboratories and technical assistance centers are other possible resources for professional growth. Schools planning their reforms can check the offerings of such agencies to see whether the services offered meet the staff's needs. In the study, a few schools and districts had banded together to support ongoing consortia or centers for professional development. A few interested schools might also pool their resources to ensure the regular availability of technical assistance.
Empire High School is fortunate to have access to a professional development academy housed in the district. The academy, supported by foundation funds, has a strong director, a restructuring team, and a commitment to school-based, teacher-directed staff development. The facility offers an auditorium, a well-stocked professional library, and various conference and seminar rooms. Staff of the professional development academy serve on the Design Team, which leads Empire's restructuring efforts. The academy provides expertise and technical assistance on a regular basis from staff that the school faculty trust. |
Although schools created varied approaches for implementing these features, their presence and integration characterized successful, dynamic reform. The next section provides examples of schools that have, to various degrees, incorporated these lessons into their reform efforts.
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[Examples of Promising School-Based Reform Efforts]