References

Astone, Nan Marie, and McLanahan, Sara. (1991). "Family structure, parental practices, and high school completion." American Sociological Review 56: 309-320.

Ayres, Leonard. (1909). Laggards in Our Schools. Philadelphia: Russell Sage Foundation.

Baldwin, Janet. (1990). "GED candidates: A decade of change." GED Profiles: Adults in Transition, No. 1. Washington, DC: GED Testing Service, American Council on Education.

Bishop, John H. (1989). "Why the apathy in American high schools?" Educational Researcher 18(1): 6-10.

Braddock, Jomills H. II and McPartland, James M. (1990). Alternatives to Tracking. Baltimore: Center for Research on the Effective Schooling of Disadvantaged Students, Johns Hopkins University.

Brown, R. B. (1993). "School culture, social politics, and the academic motivation of U.S. students." In T. Tomlinson (ed.), Motivating Students to Learn: Overcoming Barriers to High Achievement, Berkeley, CA: McCutcheon Publishing Corp.

Bryk, Anthony S., and Driscoll, Mary E. (1989). The SChool as Community: Theoretical Foundations, Contextual Influences, and Consequences for Students and Teachers. Madison, WI: National Center on Effective Secondary Schools, University of Wisconsin.

Bryk, Anthony, Lee, Valerie, and Smith, Julia. (1990). "High school organization and its effects on teachers and students: An interpretive summary of the research." Pp. 135-226 in William H. Clune and John F. Witte (eds.), Choice and Control in American Education, Volume 1. London: Falmer.

Bryk, A. and Thum, Y. (1989). "The effects of high school organization on dropping out: An exploratory investigation." American Educational Research Journal 26: 353-384.

Cameron, S. V. and Heckman, J. J. (1991). The non-equivalence of high school equivalents. Working paper no. 3804. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Catterall, James S. (1989). "Standards and school dropouts: A national study of tests required for high school graduation." American Journal of Education 98: 1-34.

Clune, William H., and White, Paula A. (1992). "Education reform in the trenches: Increased academic course taking in high schools with lower achieving students in states with higher graduation requirements." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 14: 2-20.

Coleman, J. S. and Hoffer, T. (1987). Public and Private High Schools: The Impact of Community. New York: Basic Books.

Corbett, Thomas, Deloya, Jeannette, Manning, Wendy, and Uhr, Liz. (1989). "Learnfare: The Wisconsin experience." Focus 12(2): 1-10.

D'Amico, Ronald J. (1984). "Does working in high school impair academic progress?" Sociology of Education 57: 157-164.

Eckert, R., and Marshall, T. (1938). When Youth Leave School. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Ensminger, Margaret E., and Slusarcick, Anita L. (1992). "Paths to high school graduation or drop out: A longitudinal study of a first grade cohort." Sociology of Education (65)(2): 95-113.

Fine, Michelle. (1986). "Why urban adolescents drop into and out of public high school." Pp. 89-105 in Gary Natriello (ed.), School Dropouts: Patterns and Policies. New York: Teachers College Press.

Fine, Michelle. (1991). Framing Dropouts: Notes on the Politics of an Urban High School. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Gottfredson, Gary D., and Gottfredson, Denise C. (1985). Victimization in Schools. New York: Plenum Press.

Grannis, Joseph P. (1991). "Dropout prevention in New York City: A second chance." Phi Delta Kappan 73(2): 143-149.

Hamilton, Stephen F. (1987). "Raising standards and reducing dropout rates." Pp. 148-167 in Gary Natriello (ed.), School Dropouts: Patterns and Policies. New York: Teachers College Press.

Higgins, Catherine. (Summer 1988). "Youth motivation: At-risk youth talk to program planners." Public/Private Ventures, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Jackson, Silvia R. (1989). "Learnfare: The state's perspective." Focus 12(2): 11-14.

Kreitzer, Amelia, Madaus, George F., and Haney, Walt. (1989). "Competency testing and dropouts." Pp. 129-152 in Lois Weis, Eleanor Farrar, and Hugh G. Petrie (eds.), Dropouts from School: Issues, Dilemmas and Solutions. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Lerner, Barbara. (March 1991). "Good news about American education," Commentary 91(3): 19-25.

Levin, H. (1987). "Accelerated schools for disadvantaged students," Educational Leadership, 47(6): 19-21.

Mac Iver, Douglas J., and Epstein, Joyce L. (1991). "Responsive practices in the middle grades: Teacher teams, advisory groups, remedial instruction, and school transition programs." American Journal of Education 99: 587-622.

Marsh, Herbert W. (1991). "Employment during high school: Character building or a subversion of academic goals?" Sociology of Education 64: 172-189.

McDill, Edward L., Natriello, Gary, and Pallas, Aaron M. (1987). "A population at risk: Potential consequences of tougher school standards for student dropouts." Pp.106-147 in Gary Natriello (ed.), School Dropouts: Patterns and Policies. New York: Teachers College Press.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Natriello, Gary, McDill, Edward L., and Pallas, Aaron M. (1990). Schooling Disadvantaged Children: Racing Against Catastrophe. New York: Teachers College Press.

Natriello, Gary, Pallas, Aaron M., and Riehl, Carolyn. (1990). Creating More Responsive Student Evaluation Systems for Disadvantaged Students. Baltimore: Center for Research on the Effective Schooling of Disadvantaged Students, Johns Hopkins University.

Pallas, Aaron M. (1986). The Determinants Of High School Dropouts. Report No. 364. Baltimore: Center for Social Organization of Schools, Johns Hopkins University.

Rothman, Robert. (1992). "G.E.D. turning 50, eyes debate over student standards." Education Week XI(18), January 22, pp. 1, 10-11.

Stern, David, Dayton, Charles, Il-Woo Paik, Weisberg, Alan, and Evans, John. (1988). "Combining academic and vocational courses in an integrated program to reduce high school dropout rates: Second-year results from replications of the California Peninsula Academies." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 10: 161- 170.

Toby, Jackson and Armor, David. (1992). "Carrots or sticks for high school dropouts?" The Public Interest 106(Winter): 76-90.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1989). Dropout Rates in the United States: 1988. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

-----. (1991). Dropout Rates in the United States: 1990. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

-----. (1992a). Dropout Rates in the United States: 1991. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

-----. (1993). Dropout Rates in the United States: 1992. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

-----. (1992b). Overview and Inventory of State Requirements for School Coursework and Attendance. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

Upchurch, Dawn M., and McCarthy, James. (1990). "The timing of a first birth and high school completion." American Sociological Review 55: 224-234.

Wagner, Mary. (1991). Dropouts with Disabilities: What Do We Know? What Can We Do? Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

Wehlage, Gary G., Rutter, Robert A. (1986). "Dropping out: How much do schools contribute to the problem?" Teachers College Record 87: 374-392.

Wehlage, Gary G., Rutter, Robert A., Smith, Gregory A., Lesko, Nancy, and Fernandez, Ricardo R. (1989). Reducing the Risk: Schools as Communities of Support. London: Falmer.

Wehlage, Gary G., Smith, Gregory, and Lipman, Pauline. (1992). "Restructuring urban schools: The New Futures experience." American Educational Research Journal 29: 51-93.

West, P. (1992). "Indian youths found prone to unhealthful behaviors." Education Week, April 1992.

The Need for Theory Table of Contents