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PART II RECENT EDUCATION STATISTICS AND FEDERAL LEGISLATION
Approximately 71.8 million people were involved in U.S. education in the fall of 1993, up from 65.2 million in the fall of 1988. Included in this total are 63.9 million students; 3.7 million teachers and faculty at the elementary, secondary and postsecondary levels; and 4.2 million professional, administrative, and support staff. Thus, in a Nation with a population of around 258 million, more that one out of every four persons was participating in education at some level -- whether elementary, secondary, or postsecondary. Yet educators and public policy leaders are calling on even more Americans to become "lifelong learners." For many reasons, then, education has begun to command increased attention in contemporary U.S. society.
The segment that follows contains further statistics and tables that paint a more detailed, quantitative picture of education in the United States. These figures suggest, rather than define in absolute terms, the progress of U.S. education over the past several years.
Enrollment in U.S. elementary and secondary schools has ebbed and flowed over the past two decades, reaching an all-time high of 51.3 million students in 1971, dropping to 45 million in 1984, then climbing slightly to 45.4 million in 1988. By 1992, the number had reached 47.8 million. These increases have been concentrated at the elementary school level (kindergarten through grade 8) where enrollment rose from 31.2 million in 1984 to 34.4 million in 1992. In contrast, the enrollment at the high school level -- grades 9 through 12 -- declined during the same period from 13.8 million to 12.6 million.(Also see Table 1)
Enrollment trends in elementary and secondary schools in the United States closely mirror changes in the school-age population. At age five, about 91 percent of the children tend to be enrolled in preprimary or elementary school; at age six through 13, more than 99 percent; and at age 14 through 17, about 95 percent. Enrollment declined in the 1970's and early 1980's because there were fewer school-age children. In fall 1985, elementary and secondary school enrollments increased for the first time since 1971. Enrollment has continued to rise, as evidenced by an increase of 7 percent from 1985 to 1992. However, elementary and secondary enrollment exhibited contrasting patterns. Between 1985 and 1992, public elementary enrollment rose by 13 percent while secondary enrollment declined by 6 percent, a discrepancy explainable in terms of a very recent rise in births.
During the 1970s and early 1980s, preprimary education enrollment grew substantially. Between 1970 and 1980, preprimary enrollment of 3- to 5-year-olds rose by 19 percent; between 1980 and 1992, it increased an additional 31 percent. An important feature of the growing participation of young children in preprimary schools is the increasing proportion of full-day programs. In 1992, about 38 percent of children in this age group attended school all day, compared with 32 percent in 1980 and 17 percent in 1970.
Despite drops in total elementary and secondary school enrollment during the late 1970s and early 1980s, increasing numbers of children were served in programs for the handicapped. In 1976-77, 8 percent of children were served in these programs, compared with 12 percent in 1990-91. However, since 1983-84, the increases have been relatively small. Much of the rise in the 1976-77 to 1989-90 period may be attributed to the passage of the Education of the Handicapped Act of 1975 and an increasing proportion of children being identified as "learning disabled," which rose from less than 2 percent of all children in 1976-77 to 5 percent of all children in 1990-91.
The trend in births in the recent past ensures that enrollment will continue to grow for a number of years. According to projections by the National Center for Education Statistics, an arm of the U.S. Department of Education, by the year 1995, total student enrollment in educational institutions should reach 64.6 million, and by the year 2000 it should reach 68.1 million.
In higher education institutions, the enrollment trend has been generally upward for many years. Higher education enrollment increased by 41 percent between 1970 and 1980. Since then, enrollments have risen more slowly. Between 1980 and 1992, enrollment increased about 20 percent, from 12.1 million to a record 14.6 million. Much of this growth was in part-time students. Between 1980 and 1992, the number of men enrolled rose only 13 percent, while the number of women increased by 27 percent.
The number of older students has been growing more rapidly than the number of younger students. Between 1980 and 1990, the enrollment of students under age 25 increased by only 3 percent. During the same period, enrollment of those 25 and over rose by 34 percent. The National Center for Education Statistics projects from 1990 to 1998 a rise of 14 percent in enrollments of persons over 25 and an increase of only 6 percent in the number of those under 25.
Enrollment trends have differed at the undergraduate, graduate, and first-professional levels. Undergraduate enrollments increased rapidly during the 1970s, but dipped between 1983 and 1985. Since 1985, undergraduate enrollment has risen steadily, increasing 15 percent between 1986 and 1991. Graduate enrollment held steady at about 1.3 million in the late 1970s and early 1980s, but rose about 14 percent in the years between 1986 and 1991 to slightly over 1.6 million. After rising very rapidly during the 1970s, enrollment in first-professional programs stabilized in the 1980s. There was a small increase in first-professional enrollment between 1986 and 1991.
Since 1984, the number of women in graduate schools has exceeded the number of men. Between 1981 an 1991, the number of male full-time graduate students increased by 23 percent, compared with 45 percent for full-time women. Among part-time graduate students, men increased by only 6 percent compared with 25 percent for women.
The proportion of minority students has been rising. In 1976, 15.7 percent of all students were minorities, compared with 21.2 percent in 1991. Much of the change can be attributed to rising numbers of Hispanic and Asian students. The proportion of black students has fluctuated over the past 15 years. In 1976 it was 9.6 percent, and it was 9.6 percent again in 1991. These percentages exclude foreign students enrolled in U.S. colleges and universities.
Despite the sizable numbers of small colleges, most students attend the larger colleges. In fall 1991, 38 percent of higher education campuses had fewer than 1,000 students; yet altogether, these campuses enrolled only 4 percent of college students. On the other hand, though only 12 percent of the campuses enrolled over 10,000 students each, they accounted for 53 percent of total enrollment.
The number of teachers in U.S. elementary and secondary schools has continued to rise through the years. The increase continued even during the 1970's and early 1980's, when enrollment was decreasing. The number of elementary and secondary school teachers grew from 2.5 million in 1984 to an estimated 2.8 million in 1991. This number has risen in recent years, up about 11 percent since 1985. The number of public school teachers in 1993 was about 2.5 million, and the number in private schools was estimated at about 0.4 million. About 1.8 million teachers were teaching in elementary schools, while about 1.1 million were employed at the secondary level.
The number of public school teachers has risen at a faster rate than the number of students in recent years, resulting in a continuing decrease in the pupil/teacher ratio. In the fall of 1992, there were 17.3 pupils per public school teacher, compared with 18.6 pupils per teacher 10 years earlier. During the same time period, the pupil-teacher ratio in private schools fell from 17.2 to 14.8.
In general, public school teachers receive substantially higher salaries than private school teachers. In 1990-91, the average base salary for public school teachers was $31,296, compared with $19,783 for private school teachers. The average salary for public school teachers has grown rapidly in recent years, reaching $35,334 in 1992-93. After adjustment for inflation, teachers' salaries rose 18 percent between 1982-83 and 1992-93, more than recouping the losses in purchasing power suffered during the 1970s.
The number of nonteaching staff employed by public schools grew at a faster rate than the number of pupils and teachers in the 1970s. During the 1970s, the proportion of the total staff who were teachers declined from 60 percent to 52 percent. In the 1980s, the number of teachers grew at about the same rate as other public school staff. In 1969-70, there were 13.6 pupils per staff member (total staff) compared with 9.2 pupils per staff member in 1991. In 1990-91, the number of pupils per staff member at private schools was 9.5.
Small increases have occurred over time in the number of instructional staff members in colleges and universities. In most years, the increases have been proportional to the rise in full- time-equivalent enrollment in those institutions. For example, from 1984 to 1990, the increase in college faculty is estimated to have risen from 717,000 to 824,220.
The student-staff ratio at colleges and universities dropped from 5.4 in 1976 to 4.8 in 1989, the latest year for which figures are available. During the same time period, the student-faculty ratio dropped from 16.6 to 15.7. The proportion of staff who were administrative and other non-teaching professional staff rose from 15 percent in 1976 to 22 percent in 1989, while the proportion of staff identified as non-professional declined from 42 percent to 38 percent.
Approximately 2.5 million people were employed in colleges and universities in the fall of 1989, including 1.5 million professional and .9 million nonprofessional staff. About 40 percent of the staff were teachers or teaching assistants, 22 percent were other non-teaching professionals, 18 percent were clerical of secretarial, and the remaining 20 percent were technical, paraprofessional, skilled crafts, service, and maintenance staff.
Colleges differ widely in their practices of employing part- time and full-time staff. In fall 1989, only 52 percent of the employees at public 2-year colleges were employed full-time compared with 76 percent at public and 75 percent at private four- year colleges. A higher proportion of the faculty at public 4- year colleges (79 percent) was employed full-time than at private 4-year colleges (64 percent) or public 2-year colleges (39 percent).
About 10 percent of full-time faculty in colleges and universities were minorities in 1987-88. Four percent of the faculty were Asian-Pacific Islanders; 3 percent were black; 2 percent were Hispanic; and 1 percent were American Indian.
College faculty generally suffered losses in the purchasing power of their salaries from 1972-73 to 1980-81, when average salaries fell 17 percent after adjustment for inflation. During the 1980s, average salaries were on the rise and have recouped most of the losses. Changes in 1990-91 and 1991-92 were relatively small. Average salaries for men in 1991-92 ($46,848) were considerably higher than the average for women ($37,534) and have increased at a faster rate since 1980-81.
The proportion of faculty with tenure has remained relatively stable in recent years. About 64 percent of full-time faculty were tenured in 1991-92, but a large difference existed between the proportion of men and women with tenure. Seventy percent of men compared with 49 percent of women were tenured in 1991-92. About 66 percent of the faculty at public institutions were tenured, compared with 57 percent of faculty at private institutions.
Since 1940, the Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce, has collected statistics on the educational attainment of the population in the United States. The data from these household surveys are available in Census reports that provide detailed information by age, race, and sex. Table three, which is derived from Census publications, shows the level of education completed by the entire adult population 25 years of age and over and also by young adults 25 to 29 years old. The data indicate that through the years there has been a strong upward trend in the proportion of adults who complete their high school and college education. The trend has continued into the 1990's, although the rate of increase has decreased perceptibly in recent years.
Between 1988 and 1991, the proportion of adults with four years of high school or more rose from 77.7 percent to 79.9 percent. During the same period, those with four or more years of college increased from 20.9 to 22.2 percent. Among young adults (ages 25-29), the proportion with four years of high school or more dropped slightly from 85.9 percent in 1988 to 85.5 percent in 1991, while those with four or more years of college edged up slightly from 23 percent in 1988 to 23.2 percent in 1991. Although the white population has completed more years of school than blacks and other races, the gap has narrowed substantially in recent years.
The number of high school graduates in 1992-93 totaled about 2.5 million. Slightly less than 2.3 million graduated from public schools and less than .03 million graduated from private schools. Because of a decrease in the population of teenagers, the number of high school graduates has declined from its peak in 1976-77 when 3.2 million people earned their diplomas.
Although the number of graduates has been lower in recent years, comparisons of the number of public and private high school graduates with the 17-year-old population show that the proportion of young people earning regular high school diplomas has not decreased over the past 20 years. At its highest point in 1968- 69, there were 77.1 graduates for every 100 persons 17 years of age. This ratio declined during the 1970s, falling to a low point of 71.4 in 1979-80. The ratio has risen since then, reaching 73.8 in 1992-93. Other measures, such as the dropout rate among 16- to 24-year-olds (which count GED recipients as completers) suggest some improvements, especially for blacks.
The number of degrees conferred by institutions of higher learning is expected to be at an all-time high during the year 1992-93: 497,000 associate degrees; 1,145,000 bachelor's degrees; 364,000 master's degrees; and 41,200 doctor's degrees.
The total number of bachelor's degrees increased slowly during the early 1980s and more rapidly at the end of the decade, especially for women. Between 1980-81 and 1990-91, the number of bachelor's degrees awarded to men increased by 7 percent, while the number of degrees awarded to women rose by 27 percent.
In recent years, more people are completing college. Between 1980-81 and 1990-91, the number of associate, bachelor's, masters, and doctor's degrees rose. Associate degrees increased 16 percent, bachelor's degrees increased 17 percent, master's degrees increased 14 percent, and doctor's degrees increased 19 percent during this period. The number of first-professional degrees during this period was about the same in 1990-91 as it was in 1980-81. They declined in the mid 1980s before rising in the late 1980s.
Of the 1,094,538 bachelor's degrees awarded in 1990-91, the largest number of degrees were conferred in the fields of business and management (249,960), social sciences (124,893), education (111,010), engineering and engineering technology (78,864), health professionals (59,268), and psychology (58,451). At the master's level, the largest fields were education (88,904), and business and management (78,681). The largest fields at the doctor's level were education (6,697), engineering and engineering technology (5,272), physical sciences (4,290), and life sciences (4,093).
The pattern of bachelor's degrees by field of study has shifted significantly in recent years. The pace of growth in such areas as business and management has subsided, and declines are significant in male majority fields such as engineering and computer and information sciences. The number of degrees conferred in business and management rose by 19 percent between 1980-81 and 1985-86, but only by 5 percent between 1985-86 and 1990-91. Engineering and engineering technologies rose 28 percent between 1980-81 and 1985-86, but then posted a decline of 18 percent between 1985-86 and 1990-91. In contrast, some fields that had been declining (e.g., psychology and other social sciences) began to increase. For example, the number of degrees conferred in social sciences dropped by 7 percent between 1980-81 and 1985-86, but rose 33 percent between 1985-86 and 1990-91. In 1987-88, the number of degrees conferred in education rose for the first time since 1972-73. To some extent, these shifts during the 1985-86 and 1990-91 period highlight the increasing female majority on college campuses by reflecting significant increases in degrees in predominantly female fields and decreases in predominantly male fields.
Only about half of the students who enrolled full-time in a 4-year college in 1980 graduated with a bachelor's degree by 1986, according to the High School and Beyond survey. About 55 percent of the students who enrolled in private 4-year colleges earned a bachelor's or higher degree by 1986 compared with 46 percent in public 4-year colleges.
Total expenditures for public and private education at all levels (elementary, secondary, and higher education) rose from about $330.5 billion in 1988-89 to an estimated $445.3 billion in 1992-93. The expenditures of elementary and secondary education are expected to total about $279 billion for this period, while institutions of higher learning will spend about $187 billion.
Elementary and secondary spending amounted to about 60 percent of total expenditures, and colleges and universities accounted for the remaining 40 percent. The expenditure per pupil in public schools has risen significantly in recent years, even after allowing for inflation. In 1992-93, the estimated current expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance was $5,762. After adjustment for inflation, this figure represents an increase of 34 percent since 1982-83.
Public elementary and secondary schools received virtually all of their funding from governmental sources, especially State and local governments. The state share of revenues for public education grew steadily through most of the 1980s, but in 1987-88 the trend began to reverse. Between 1987-88 and 1990-91, the local share of school funding rose to equal the proportion from state governments. In 1990-91, 47 percent of all revenue came from State sources, 47 percent came from local sources, and 6 percent came from the Federal government.
Colleges and universities received income from a variety of sources, including State and local government, tuition fees from students, sales and services, the Federal government, private gifts and grants, and endowment earnings. A prime difference in the financing of public and private higher education institutions is revealed in the fact that most public institutions receive major contributions from State governments, while private colleges and universities rely to a much greater extent on tuition and fees from students. This difference means that public institutions can keep their tuition and fees relatively low compared with charges at private colleges. For example, in 1991-92, a full-time undergraduate student attending a public college or university in his or her home State paid an average of about $1,665 in tuition and fees for that year. During the same year, the average student in a private institution paid $9,498 in tuition and fees.
With the rise of school enrollment in the 1990s and a growing public awareness of the importance of education, over the past four years the U.S. has devoted a higher proportion of its resources to its schools. In 1987-88, total spending for education amounted to 6.9 percent of the gross domestic product. In 1992-93, total expenditures for education are expected to amount to about 7.8 percent of the gross domestic product.
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[Part II - Federal Legislation]