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Progress of Education in the United States of America - 1990 through 1994
PART I ADMINISTRATION, ORGANIZATION, AND FINANCING OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Education in the United States is organized on three principal levels: the elementary (including pre-school and primary), the secondary, and the postsecondary. Vocational training is available at the secondary and postsecondary levels. In addition, formal and informal programs of adult education and continuing education are offered widely to U.S. citizens in virtually any part of the country -- and throughout their lives. (The structure of U.S. education is illustrated in Figure 1.)
Education in the United States is compulsory, beginning at age 7 in 29 States, at age 6 in 16 States, and at age 5 in 3 states. Usually a person is required to attend school until age 16. Schooling is free, through completion of secondary school (grade 12) for those who attend public schools.
Most classes are taught in English. However, in schools where there is a high concentration of students whose first language is not English, courses are sometimes taught in a foreign language until students are sufficiently conversant in English to enter regular classes.
On the primary and secondary levels, the academic year usually begins in September and continues through the first or second week in June, though some school districts prefer to begin and end the school year earlier. Most States require a school year of 180 school days. The school day usually lasts from 8:30 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. -- six hours long, excluding recess and lunch periods. In most instances -- and particularly at the secondary level -- students are given assignments to complete in the afternoon or evening, after the official school day has ended.
On the postsecondary level, the academic calendar is much more flexible. The norm for a full-time student is two semesters of 15-16 weeks each per academic year, but many institutions vary this pattern. Some, for example, adopt a trimester system, which divides the academic year into three segments of 15-16 weeks; and others adopt a quarter system, with the school year divided into four 11-week segments. In the latter two systems, the student normally does not attend school the entire year, but two out of three trimesters or three out of four quarters.
Elementary education in the United States consists of one or two years of pre-school, one year of kindergarten, and five to eight years of primary education.
Most public school systems provide half-day kindergarten classes for children five years of age, and some provide preschool classes for younger children, though most pre-school programs are offered privately. Although enrollment at five is voluntary, except in 3 States, 87.1 percent of five-year-olds were enrolled in school in 1992-93. Although primary education may consist of six or eight grades, the six-grade school is most common. The main purpose of primary school is the general development of children from six to 12 or 14 years of age (depending on whether the school is a six- or eight-year elementary school). The program has as its goal to help students acquire basic skills, knowledge, and positive attitudes toward learning. Elementary schools emphasize the growth of the individual child and the relation of the child's progress to individual needs and abilities. Traditional subjects such as reading, writing and mathematics provide tools for learning; and the teacher helps children to recognize problems, work out solutions, and evaluate results.
During the 1960's, the middle school gained widespread acceptance in U.S. education. A refinement of the junior high school, which was designed to improve the transition from elementary to secondary education, the middle school usually includes grades five or six through eight, provides team teaching and other innovative instructional methods, and emphasizes curricular exploration and growing independence for students. Its purpose is to serve the educational needs of students in the early adolescent period -- those between 10 and 14 years of age.
Secondary education in the United States begins at grade seven or grade nine, depending on whether elementary education in the system extends through grade six or grade eight. In some systems, junior high school follows elementary school, and includes grades seven and eight or seven through nine, followed by high school, which can include grades 9-12 or 10-12. At this level of education, students normally complete the 12th grade by ages 17 or 18. Though each State establishes its own public school curriculum, mandated requirements for high school graduation generally include: two years of mathematics, two years of science, four years of English, and three years of social studies. Students may elect the other courses they take, usually with the assistance of a guidance counsellor. Electives might include such subjects as art, music, foreign languages, and computers. Individual students may elect a program of studies that exceeds the requirements, and many do. The number of hours in any given subject required for graduation varies from State to State.
By the end of grade 10, most students have decided whether they will follow a primarily academic program leading to further education at the college level, a vocational training program leading to employment or specialized postsecondary training, or a general program combining elements of both the academic and the vocational programs. In recent years, the general program has been criticized as insufficient either to prepare students for college-level study or to train them sufficiently for employment in an increasingly competitive marketplace.
All secondary programs lead to the high school diploma and in most school districts are offered in the same comprehensive institution. A comprehensive institution offers a combined curriculum like the general program, allows students to transfer easily from one program to another, and provides flexibility for students to develop individual schedules to meet their own personal goals. It is not unusual for a medium-sized comprehensive high school to offer 200 or more separate courses. A comprehensive high school also provides the opportunity for young people with different career interests, as well as diverse social and economic backgrounds to have regular contact with each other. However, in recent years many school districts have introduced magnet schools, which are designed to attract students from all over the school district with a special interest in a particular area of study, such as science, the arts, or languages. Thus magnet schools, while retaining economic and cultural diversity, deliberately sacrifice some curricular variety in order to achieve a more concentrated academic focus.
Most students reach the minimum age for dropping out of school at least a year before graduating from high school. Yet of these students, about 75 percent remain in school until they receive the high school diploma at the end of grade 12.
The American high school is highly flexible, both in its academic offerings and in its vocational programs. In a growing number of schools, academically gifted students can take several additional hours per week of advanced science or mathematics during their last two years of high school. In many instances, pupils taking advanced courses receive college or university credit. Most secondary schools offer some foreign language courses, most commonly Spanish and French.
Many students who leave school before high school graduation return to take a General Educational Development (GED) test -- a comprehensive examination over basic skills and knowledge taught in elementary school and high school. A certificate of success on the GED is often accepted as the equivalent of a high school diploma. In many cases high schools offer special short-term courses designed to prepare students to pass the GED test. In 1990, 410,000 people received academic credentials in this manner.
Private education at the elementary and secondary levels is similar in curriculum and structure to public education. The vast majority of private schools are coeducational and range from those designed to serve children with learning disabilities, to inner-city religious schools, to college preparatory schools with or without dormitory facilities.
In 1992-93, students in private schools represented about 11 percent of the Nation's children in elementary and secondary school. Approximately 5.5 million students were enrolled in about 25,000 private schools.
The majority of students attending private elementary and secondary schools are enrolled in Roman Catholic school systems - - about 55 percent. Non-affiliated schools account for about 14 percent of private school enrollment, while the remaining students -- 31 percent -- are enrolled in other religiously affiliated schools, the largest number of which are Lutheran. Also, Roman Catholic schools account for a substantial proportion of private schools -- 35 percent -- while non-affiliated schools account for 18 percent, and other religiously affiliated schools, 47 percent.
Academic education, in the early grades, provides a foundation for vocational education, as well as general education, in secondary and postsecondary institutions. General education at the secondary level provides the basic skills and academic preparation required for postsecondary study. Vocational education, on the other hand, typically begins at the secondary level and continues through the second year of the postsecondary level. Vocational programs are also designed to retrain and upgrade the skills of adult workers in order to keep them current with the changing needs of the marketplace. Such programs contribute to the productivity and economic development of the nation.
The major goal of vocational education is to increase the student's knowledge and skills to meet the demands of a specific job or occupational field. Elementary and secondary schools, as well as adult education centers, offer more than 400 instructional programs designed to increase the individual's potential to enter a new job market or to upgrade his or her skills in a current position. These programs are usually grouped under the seven traditional headings of vocational education: agriculture, marketing and distribution, health occupations, occupational home economics, business and office occupations, technical education, and trade and industrial education.
Certain programs logically continue from the secondary to the postsecondary level. These include office occupations, marketing and distribution education, health occupations, and other nontechnical programs. Because of the academic foundation required at the secondary level, technical education usually begins with postsecondary schooling. However, some special- purpose high schools and large vocational/technical schools offer technical programs at the secondary level. Generally, a two-year postsecondary program is required for minimal competency in any of the physical sciences. If the postsecondary program permits, at this point a student may choose to terminate his or her technical education and transfer credits to study at a four-year college or university. Thus, among institutions that offer technical programs, there is a logical progression from subprofessional to professional technical occupations.
One of the most significant effects of the academic reform movement may ultimately be on the nature and extent of vocational education at the secondary level. More stringent graduation requirements in academic subjects are reducing the time available to students for enrollment in vocational education. However, educators are devoting efforts to the development of stronger ties between academic and vocational courses and secondary and postsecondary vocational programs.
In summary, through its regular secondary and postsecondary programs, vocational education continues to supply a consistent flow of skilled, entry-level workers and to provide specialized training and retraining for adults. In other words, vocational education is intended to meet the needs of students, employers, and communities all at the same time.
Generally speaking, there are three main types of degree- granting higher-education institutions in the United States: the two-year community or junior college, the four-year undergraduate college, and the university. The university normally includes undergraduate as well as graduate and professional education. Each category has both public and private institutions. Two-year institutions offer terminal degrees (associate's degrees) for two years of study or preparation for moving into the last two years of undergraduate study at a four-year college. Four-year colleges usually award undergraduate degrees for four years of study. However, a growing number of four-year institutions offer the last two years of undergraduate study and two years of graduate work for a graduate degree, awarding both undergraduate and graduate degrees. Universities usually offer four years of undergraduate study and two to four years of graduate study, awarding undergraduate, graduate, and professional degrees. Some institutions have post-doctoral programs for advanced study -- generally based on an individualized study or research plan. In 1990-91, there were 156 universities (94 public and 62 private); 1,963 other 4-year institutions (496 public and 1,467 private); and 1,382 two-year colleges (958 public and 424 private).
Higher education institutions may be classified according to the total number of degrees they conferred and the field in which the degrees were awarded. This classification divides such institutions into doctoral, comprehensive, general baccalaureate, and specialized institutions. Doctoral institutions are characterized by a significant level of commitment to doctoral programs and considerable activity in them. Comprehensive institutions have a strong post-baccalaureate program but do not engage in significant doctoral- level education. General baccalaureate institutions focus primarily on undergraduate baccalaureate education. The category of specialized includes professional and other highly-focused institutions.
Of the 3,501 higher education institutions in the United States in 1990-91, a total of 2,119 were four-year colleges and universities. (In addition, some 6,455 nonacademic postsecondary schools -- often called "proprietary schools" -- both public and private, were offering job training in a wide variety of occupations. Normally, these vocational schools do not grant academic degrees but offer certificates or diplomas documenting the completion of training in a given trade or skill.)
The many and diverse degree-granting institutions of higher learning in the United States comprise a broad spectrum of academic traditions, philosophies, and educational goals. More than half are private institutions originally established by special-interest groups for social, educational, or religious purposes. However, the public institutions account for approximately 79 percent of the total enrollment in colleges and universities. Accrediting agencies and associations help to maintain high educational standards and compatible practices among many different institutions. These organizations were established by the member institutions themselves or by professions and specialized vocational fields, and membership is voluntary. Federal and State governments also require the maintenance of certain standards as a condition for financial assistance. Moreover, the professional integrity of the teaching staff and the demands of the economy for qualified graduates motivate most institutions to monitor carefully the quality of their programs.
Higher education enrollment increased by 41 percent between 1970 and 1980. Since then, enrollments have risen more slowly. Between 1980 and 1992, enrollment increased about 20 percent, from 12.1 million to a record 14.6 million. Much of this growth was in part-time enrollment. Between 1980 and 1992, the number of men enrolled rose only 13 percent, while the number of women increased by 27 percent.
Enrollment trends have differed at the undergraduate, graduate, and first-professional levels. Undergraduate enrollment increased rapidly during the 1970s, but dipped between 1983 and 1985. Since 1985, undergraduate enrollment has risen steadily, increasing 15 percent between 1986 and 1991. Graduate enrollment had been steady at about 1.3 million in the late 1970s and early 1980s, but rose about 14 percent in the five years between 1986 and 1991. After rising very rapidly during the 1970's, enrollment in first-professional programs stabilized in the 1980s. There was a small increase in first-professional enrollment between 1986 and 1991.
The associate's degree. The associate of arts (A.A.) or the associate of science (A.S.) degree is usually earned at a community or junior college upon completion of two years of study. In many instances, this degree represents the same level of educational achievement as completion of the first two years of a four-year college or university, and some students who have earned the associate's degree transfer to four-year institutions. Other students, especially those who have completed vocational training for a particular job, normally enter the work force as mid-level technicians.
The bachelor's degree. The bachelor's degree normally requires four years of academic study beyond the high school diploma. In recent years, accelerated learning plans, credit by examination, or practical work experience, year-round study plans, and other innovations have enabled some students to complete the program in fewer than four years.
The two most common bachelor's degrees are the bachelor of arts (B.A.) and the bachelor of science (B.S.). The former normally requires more courses in the arts and humanities, whereas the latter usually places greater emphasis on the sciences. Other common bachelor degrees include the B. Ed. (bachelor of education), the B.F.A. (bachelor of fine arts), the B. Mus. (bachelor of music) and the B.B.A. (bachelor of business administration). The B. Arch. (bachelor of architecture) is often a five-year program. The B.D. (bachelor of divinity) and LL.B. (bachelor of law) are professional degrees, usually requiring three years of study beyond a B.A. or B.S.
The master's degree. Master's degree programs vary considerably among the institutions that award them. Masters degrees are awarded in many academic fields, but most are called master of arts (M.A.) or master of science (M.S.) degrees, or are professional degrees such as master of nursing (M.Nurs.) or master of social work (M.S.W.). Programs leading to this degree usually require one to two years of advanced study in graduate- level courses and seminars. Frequently a thesis is required and/or a final oral or written examination. Requirements may differ not only from institution to institution but also from department to department within an institution.
The doctor's degree. The doctorate is considered the highest academic degree conferred in the United States. It attests to the ability of its holder to conduct original research of a high order. The most frequently awarded doctorate is the doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.). Others include the doctor of education (D.Ed.) and the doctor of divinity (D.D.). Since work at the doctoral level is often individualized, the specific requirements may vary widely. In general, however, the degree requires a minimum of two years of course work beyond the master's degree level, success in a qualifying examination, proficiency in one or two foreign languages, and/or in an equivalent research resource (such as statistics) considered appropriate to a particular field of specialization, and completion of a doctoral dissertation that is normally intended to represent an original contribution to knowledge in the candidate's chosen field.
First-professional degrees. Included among first professional degrees are dentistry (D.D.S. or D.M.D.), law (LL.B. or J.D.), medicine (M.D.), theology (B.D. or M. Div., or Rabbi), veterinarian medicine (D.M.V.), podiatry (Pod.D. or D.P.) or podiatric medicine (D.C. or D.C.M.), and pharmacy (D.Phar.). The education prerequisite and length of study required for these degrees vary with the field of study. For example, in medicine most students, after receiving a bachelor's degree, complete four years of medical studies before receiving the M.D. degree. Subsequently, they often enter into three years of residency training in a specialty.
In 1990, 19.1 percent of young adults (25 to 30 years of age) had attended college without receiving a degree or certificate; 2.8 percent had received a vocational certificate; 6.2 percent had received an associate degree; 17.4 percent had received a bachelor's degree; 3.5 percent had received a master's degree; 1.2 percent had received a professional degree; and .03 percent had received a doctor's degree.
State and local education authorities are responsible for determining and developing public school curriculum. The Federal government is expressly forbidden by statute from intrusion into curricular decisions. There is no national public curriculum at any level of education. In fact, the U.S. Congress carefully monitors Federal assistance for curriculum development to assure that State and local control is maintained. However, the Congress has mandated that every school receiving Federal funds must provide a program designed to teach students that drug use is wrong and harmful. Also, the Federal government sometimes funds curricular research and develops model curricula that State and local authorities may choose to utilize. In this way, the Federal government exercises leadership without directly intervening in the affairs of the public school system.
Generally, States exercise their responsibility for public school curricula in five major ways: by establishing the graduation requirements for students within the State; by selecting the texts to be used in classrooms; by developing minimum-competency tests; by issuing State curriculum guides; and by providing technical assistance. For example, most States require that students take one or more social studies courses in the area of American history or the history of their particular State. Local school districts may add curriculum requirements of their own, such as local history or sex education.
State officials select textbooks and other curricular materials in about half the States. Local officials make the selections in the remainder. In either case, the State or local board of education usually delegates the responsibility to a textbook commission or committee made up of professional educators and community representatives. Most commonly, textbook commissions approve several textbooks and materials for each course, and local or school authorities make selections from the list. Usually teachers may choose a program of study from approved materials.
Most textbooks are published by private firms, which usually contract with educators and other specialists to develop teaching materials; then they submit the final products to the State and local textbook commissions for approval. States and local school districts sometimes commission teams of teachers and other experts on curriculum to develop materials for use in classrooms. In some instances, universities develop curricular materials for use at the State or local level. Teachers are often given latitude to choose a program of study from a variety of materials -- sometimes from all of these sources.
In a situation where as few as four States may control almost 30 percent of the market (California -- 11 percent, Texas -- 8 percent, New York -- 6 percent, and Illinois -- 5 percent) publishers interested in selling to a broad market are likely to address the requirements of these key States, though their curricula sometimes are based on conflicting aims.
Minimum-competency testing is a means by which the States may influence local curricula. This practice originated in the middle 1970's, and some form of minimum competency testing now exists in at least 40 States. Initially, many States mandated that students meet a minimum standard of competency before receiving a high school diploma. Gradually, testing has been extended to the lower grades to monitor early progress. Now, States conduct minimum-competency testing at two or three stages of a student's education to pinpoint problems and to institute remedial help. Reading, writing, and mathematics are the three subject areas most commonly targeted for minimum-competency testing, typically in grades three or four; six, eight, or nine; and 11 or 12.
States also influence local curricula by providing technical assistance, which is delivered primarily by State curriculum specialists in the various fields (e.g., the sciences). Among other activities, these specialists work with local district personnel individually, conduct regional and statewide workshops for groups, and organize the development of State curriculum guides (materials suggested but not mandated).
Despite the decentralized nature of American education, a certain pragmatic standardization of curriculum exists. First, the textbook is probably the greatest single determinant of curriculum, and many publishers have successfully established large markets among the nation's schools. Second, college and university entrance requirements strongly affect curricular decisions at the secondary level because local school authorities want their graduates to be readily admitted to institutions of higher education. In some cases, a high school's curriculum may be designed wholly or in large part to prepare students to enter college, even though the college-bound population may be only about 50 or 60 percent of the high school's student body. Third, national achievement and aptitude tests developed by private, non-profit organizations influence secondary school curricula. The national norms on these tests tend to become accepted norms for achievement locally; and, consciously or unconsciously, teachers may begin to teach solely in preparation for these tests. Three tests are particularly influential.
One is the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), a periodic measurement of the skills and knowledge of representative samples of 9-, 13-, and 17-year olds in reading, writing, mathematics, science, social studies, and other subjects. NAEP's impact on curriculum is more indirect than direct; it is felt primarily through the many State assessment programs that, though independently developed, are patterned after NAEP.
Two other tests that have proven highly influential on curriculum are the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the American College Testing Program (ACT). The SAT is a test of vocabulary and reasoning skills that is taken by about 1.1 million students each year. The ACT is similar to the SAT but covers social studies and the natural sciences in addition to math and English. About 800,000 students take this test each year.
State governments do not exercise direct influence on the curriculum of private or public postsecondary academic institutions. Curricular decisions are made most often within academic departments, and individual professors are responsible for the content of their courses. The institutions usually require that a student earn a given number of credits, often prescribing specific courses or areas of study as prerequisites for graduation. Many also require a student to take a specified number of courses in a major field of study before conferring a degree.
However, States can exercise indirect control over postsecondary academic institutions, both public and private, through their licensing authority. For example, through power delegated to professional licensing boards, States can require that professionals such as doctors, attorneys, engineers, and teachers complete a minimum number of courses from a specified list of academic or professional subjects to qualify for a license to practice.
All preservice teacher education in the United States is at the postsecondary level. Many public and private universities have departments, schools, or colleges of education. In addition, a few institutions in the United States specialize exclusively in preparing educators to teach special subjects such as music and art, or to give instruction to severely disabled persons.
In most cases, candidates for teacher education programs must have successfully completed one or two years of general undergraduate requirements. The minimum requirement for teaching on the elementary and secondary level in any of the 50 States is the bachelor's degree. However, an increasing number of States are meeting the growing demand for qualified instructors by instituting "alternate certification programs" which sometimes allow candidates with special qualifications to take a lesser number of education courses before entering the classroom.
While most teacher training occurs in four-year programs, some schools, colleges, or departments of education (SCDE's) offer five-year programs, some leading to a Master's degree. In most programs for elementary school teachers, the core curriculum of professional studies devotes slightly more time to theory than to method, while in programs for secondary school teachers the reverse is true. Despite an ongoing debate on the relative value of theory and method, most programs include both in all education courses.
All States require that programs to educate teachers include general education, specialization in a teaching field, and professional education courses. The general education program usually includes a foundation in the liberal arts, with an emphasis on the humanities, natural sciences, and social sciences. In addition, all states require that future teachers engage in full-time teaching in a public school classroom under the supervision of an experienced teacher approved by the college or university in which the candidate is enrolled.
In each State an agency regulates the certification of teachers. This agency issues a "certificate" or "license" to teach once all State requirements have been met. States issue several types of certificates, based on training and need: permanent (regular), probationary, and temporary, with the specific nomenclature varying from State to State.
Many States require that a teacher acquire a graduate degree within ten years. Often States or local school districts offer salary increases and free tuition as incentives to pursue study beyond what is required.
Most U.S. school districts assist or encourage teachers at the elementary and secondary levels to continue their professional growth in one way or another. To this end, teachers often have the opportunity to attend formal courses and workshops that confront significant classroom problems or explore new approaches. Those that attract the most participants tend to focus on problems that affect large numbers of teachers, such as instructing handicapped children in regular classes, meeting the needs of children from low-income families, and providing bilingual and multicultural education.
Not only do higher education institutions provide these programs, but many large school districts and several smaller ones sponsor workshops using their own staff, with or without outside consultants. Many districts have established inservice training centers, which often include a reference library, an audiovisual center, workrooms for developing instructional materials, and rooms for seminars or lectures. With increasing frequency, the control of teacher centers is being entrusted to the teachers themselves.
Other inservice opportunities available to teachers include: visits to other schools, availability of consultants for individual problems, and special days (often called "inservice days") during which pupils are excused from school and teachers participate in special programs designed to help them improve their understanding of problems and their classroom performance.
Many school districts encourage their teachers to participate in inservice education through a variety of strategies. They may (1) require a prescribed number of courses before a teaching contract can be renewed; (2) subsidize tuition fees at a university; (3) increase the salary of teachers who earn higher degrees, complete a given number of credit hours, or participate in other inservice activities; (4) release teachers from classroom responsibilities and provide travel expenses to enable them to attend professional meetings; (5) approve sabbaticals; or (6) legitimize release time during the day.
[Part I - Financing]