PART III EDUCATION REFORM 1990-1994

A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

Major Issues and Trends: Goals 4-6

Goal #4

U.S. students will be first in the world in science and mathematics achievement.

This goal is of particular importance to the U.S. business community since it addresses those skills most needed in the work place. Perhaps for this reason, this Goal is stated exclusively in terms of international competition, since more and more corporations are beginning to understand their mission in terms of a global market. Given the current need for highly trained scientists and technicians, and given the fact that 80 percent of the work force for the year 2000 is already on the job, it is small wonder that business leaders are concerned about the performance of U.S. students on international comparative tests in science and mathematics.

According to a report by the National Center for Education Statistics, in 1990, U.S. students faced significant problems in these crucial areas. Researchers found inadequacies both in instruction and in student attitude.

• In 1990, most students were not receiving the kinds of instruction needed to apply science ideas outside of the classroom, and many teachers did not have adequate facilities or supplies to pursue these types of instruction. Only 56 percent of 8th-grade teachers reported that they had adequate laboratory facilities or were well-supplied with instructional materials and resources. Only 46 percent say they have gone beyond the textbook in determining what they are to teach.

• In 1990, students in higher grades had less positive attitudes toward science and mathematics than students in lower grades. Females were especially likely to exhibit increasingly negative attitudes in the higher grades.

• Substantial numbers of secondary schools have not yet identified science and mathematics as instructional priorities. In 1990, 35 percent of 12th graders attended schools where science was identified as a priority; and 57 percent of 12th graders attended schools where mathematics was considered a priority.

• In 1991, only 78 percent of all high school science teachers held a degree in science or science education, while 68 percent of all high school mathematics teachers held a degree in mathematics or mathematics education. These levels were not statistically different from those collected in 1988.

On the other hand, there was some indication of improvement in specific areas of science and mathematics education.

• During the past six years, the numbers of Advanced Placement examinations taken in science and mathematics have increased substantially.

• Between 1989 and 1990, the number of science degrees awarded to U.S. citizens (per 1,000 22-year-olds) increased slightly, while the number awarded in mathematics remained the same.

In January of 1992, The National Center for Education Statistics of the U.S. Department of Education issued a Research- and-Development Report (International Mathematics and Science Assessments: What Have We Learned?)which outlined the results of the six international surveys on mathematics and science achievement -- in which students from the United States have "fared quite poorly" -- and concluded by noting the following trends:

• The more students are taught, the more they learn and the better they perform on the tests. There are significant differences in the content of instruction among countries at common levels of schooling.

• Use of a differentiated curriculum based on tracking is negatively associated with student performance on the international assessments and also reduces opportunities for some students to be exposed to more advanced curriculum.

• The school affects learning in some areas more than in others.

• Countries committed to keeping students enrolled in secondary school score less well on the international surveys, since their primary goal is to reach greater numbers of students rather than to promote the highest level of academic achievement. Japan is an exception. Even with high retention rates at the secondary level, Japanese students perform very well on the mathematics and science achievement surveys.

• Generally, the "best students" in the United States do poorer on the international surveys when compared with the "best students" from other countries.

The report calls for "more deliberate consideration of policy concerns in the design of international assessments" and an application of what is learned to curriculum development and programming."

The 1992 Goals Panel Report offered new information on mathematics and science achievement in the year 1991. This information included the scores of U.S. students and five other nations. The results:

• American 13-year-olds were outperformed by students in Hungary, Korea, and Taiwan in three of four areas tested in a 1991 international assessment.

• American students were also outperformed by students in Korea, Switzerland, and Taiwan in all areas tested in a 1991 international mathematics assessment, and by students in France and Hungary in four out of five areas tested.

In some respects, American students have greater opportunities than students in other nations. For example, compared to students in France, Hungary, Korea, Switzerland, and Taiwan, American 13-year-olds are generally more likely to do science experiments, to use computers, and to have more books in their homes. However, despite these advantages, they spend less time on homework and more time watching television.

In 1993, in its publication State Indicators of Science and Mathematical Education,the Council of Chief State School Officers released findings that were highly relevant to the achievement of Goal #4. Some of what they reported was positive; however, much of the information suggested that the Nation's educators still have a formidable task ahead in establishing world leadership in the areas of mathematics and science.

• From 1990 to 1992, 18 states made significant improvement in average student proficiency.

• In the content area of the eighth grade mathematics NAEP test, nine states improved student proficiency in Numbers and Operations, 14 states improved in Measurement, 10 states improved in Algebra and Functions, and four states improved in Geometry.

• Only two states showed significant improvement on the average proficiency of black students and four states showed significant improvement in the proficiency of Hispanic students.

These figures are disappointing. They suggest opportunities lost and enormous challenges in the immediate future. But if excellence is an elusive goal, the system is making progress in the area of access.

• According to the Chief State School Officers, in 1992, 87 percent of public high school students were taking mathematics -- a three percent increase since 1990.

• The percentage of students taking Advanced Algebra by graduation is up to 55 percent, a six-percent increase from 1990-1992.

• As of 1992, slightly more than half of high school graduates now take three years of high school mathematics, with states varying from 31 to 73 percent.

• By the 1991-1992 school year, 75 percent of high school students were taking a science course -- a three percent increase since 1990.

• As of 1992, 49 percent of students took Chemistry by graduation, which means that about half of the graduates take three high school science courses -- an increase of four percent since 1990.

As these figures suggest, part of the problem has been the shrinking pool of students taking mathematics and science courses. For this reason, educators have long recognized the necessity to enroll more women and minority students in advanced classes. In the past they had been substantially underrepresented, a fact that sheds significant light on the failure of women and some minorities to earn advanced science and math degrees at the postsecondary level. Several indicators suggest that the system is making progress. Among these are the following:

• Gender differences in science and mathematics courses continued to decline from 1990 to 1992. In most states, male and female participation is the same except in the most advanced mathematics and physical science courses, where males mostly continue to enroll.

• At advanced levels of science and mathematics, Asian Americans have the greatest enrollments, and Hispanic students have the greatest increase in enrollments.

• Enrollments increased at about the same rate for blacks and whites. In 1990, the national rates of students taking chemistry by graduation were about four of 10 blacks, six of 10 Asian Americans, four of 10 Hispanics, and five of 10 whites.

• Over the past decade, measurable progress has been made in equalizing the number of men and women taking advanced science courses. In fact, differences in advanced science and mathematics courses by gender declined slightly from 1990 to 1992, continuing a ten-year pattern. In 1992, males and females had equivalent course enrollment rates up to the advanced levels of mathematics and science in 20 reporting states. Females comprised 46 percent of students taking calculus, 52 percent taking chemistry, and 44 percent taking physics. As of 1982, females comprised 42 percent of students taking calculus, 48 percent taking chemistry, and 33 percent taking physics.

• Minority trends in science have also been encouraging. Specifically, our schools have made some progress in increasing participation of minority students in science and mathematics during the 1980's. From 1982 to 1990, chemistry enrollments increased 24 percent among Hispanic students and 19 percent among blacks, based on national sample data. In 1990, 40 percent of students in this group were taking chemistry by graduation. By comparison, chemistry enrollments increased 18 percent among whites (to 52 percent), and 13 percent among Asian Americans (to 64 percent).

• Minorities have also made some gains in mathematics. From 1982 to 1990, algebra enrollments increased 18 percent among blacks. In 1990, 39 percent of these minority students were taking Advanced Algebra by graduation. Advanced Algebra enrollments went up 13 percent among whites (to 52 percent), and 3 percent among Asian-Americans (to 59 percent).

Unfortunately, despite increased access to mathematics and science courses, the achievement of women and minorities has failed to improve substantially, according to the report. In only two states did African-American students show significant improvement, and in only four states did Hispanic students measurably improve their proficiency.

In addition, there is still a demonstrable inequity in the number of women and minorities who teach mathematics and science. However, there is also some cause for optimism.

• The majority of high school science teachers are male, but the gender distribution varies by field. For example, in mathematics, 55 percent of teachers are female, while 22 percent of physics teachers and 37 percent of biology teachers are female. The percentage of female teachers in mathematics varies by state from 21 to 69 percent, and the percentage of females in physics varies from 10 to 49 percent.

• In elementary and secondary schools, 31 percent of the student population is from a race/ethic minority group. This statistic can be compared to state data which show that 11 percent of high school mathematics teachers and 8 percent of science teachers are from a minority group. In virtually all states a large disparity exists between the supply of minority mathematics and science teachers and the population of minority students. The percent of new minority teachers is slightly greater than the current minority representation in the science-mathematics teaching force, and the percentage of female teachers is substantially greater.

It is obvious that in a large and dynamic modern society, problems that have been generations in the making cannot be solved quickly or easily. However, the Council of Chief State School Officers has charted definite progress in mathematics and science over a decade and more recent improvement over the two- year period between 1990 and 1992.

Few people believe that the current rate of progress in these fields is sufficient to enable the United States to maintain a position of leadership in the global marketplace. In the improvement of performance by minorities and women lies the key to U.S. achievement in mathematics and the sciences.

Goal #5

Every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.

Literacy

Adult literacy is a major problem in the United States. Indeed, illiteracy is more widespread in this country than in other industrialized nations, and the failure to read and write effectively has removed many potentially productive people from the work force as well as prevented them from exercising their full rights as citizens and fulfilling their ultimate potential as human beings.

Goal #5 also speaks to the continuing necessity for adults as well as children to be open to new educational opportunities. In the changing economic landscape, jobs, indeed, whole industries, are suddenly rendered obsolete by new technologies and new needs. Those who can adapt to new challenges are much more likely to prosper, and education prepares individuals as well as nations for change. For this reason, the Nation's leaders have urged all U.S. citizens to become "lifelong learners." Literacy is a prerequisite for such a life.

No one knows precisely how many adults are functionally illiterate. Indeed, part of the problem in eliminating illiteracy lies in the changing definition of "literacy" itself. The following list of definitions suggest the evolving nature of the concept:

• In 1930, the Civilian Conservation Corps, a federal jobs program, defined functional literacy as three or more years of schooling.

• In 1947, the U.S. Census Bureau defined functional literacy as five or more years of schooling.

• In 1952, the Bureau changed its definition to six or more years of schooling. In 1960, the U.S. Office of Education adopted an eighth grade education as the standard; and by 1970, many experts were saying that completion of high school was necessary for functional literacy. (Adult Literacy and New Technologies: Tools for a Lifetime, Technology Assessment Board, U.S. Congress, p. 4.)

• The 1991 National Adult Literacy Act defined literacy as "...an individual's ability to read, write, and speak in English, and compute and solve problems at levels of proficiency necessary to function on the job and in society, to achieve one's goals, and develop one's knowledge and potential."

• The National Adult Literacy Survey, conducted by the Educational Testing Service for the National Center for Education Statistics, has adopted the following definition of literacy: "...using printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one's goals, and to develop one's knowledge and potential."

It is significant that these latter definitions include more than merely school completed or even the ability to read basic sentences. They suggest the opportunity to move freely and easily in society, to secure worthy employment, and to achieve intellectual, social, and economic goals that may vary from individual to individual.

In addition to problems of definition, no one is certain just how many Americans have literacy needs. A 1991 Census Bureau report on the 1989 adult population ages 20 and over gives some indications:

• Approximately 19 million adults have eight years or less of schooling.

• Approximately 22 million were classified as illiterate in the Bureau's 1982 English Language Proficiency Study.

• Approximately 35 million have been classified as functionally incompetent on literacy tasks by the National Adult Performance Level Study (1975).

• Approximately 38 million have less than 12 years of schooling.

Some analysts have pointed out that several subgroups of the total population exhibited a high likelihood of literacy problems. Among these would be the following:

• approximately 26 million who report speaking a language other than English at home,

• approximately six million who report speaking English "not well" or "not at all,"

• approximately eight million job seekers whose literacy skills test below adequate level,

• and 11 to 15 million job seekers who perceive a need for better literacy skills. (quoted in Adult Literacy and New Technologies: Tools for a Lifetime, Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, p. 6.)

These various studies and estimates indicate the difficulty of defining the scope of the U.S. literacy problem and tracking progress toward the achievement of this Goal. However, in September of 1993, the National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) released the first nationally representative data on the literacy skills of the Nation's adults (aged 16 and older). Data included types of literacy skills, levels, and how these skills are distributed across the population. Basic arithmetic skills were also tested. The results indicated that some 90 million adults - - about 47 percent of the U.S. adult population -- demonstrate low levels of literacy. In addition, the report revealed the following:

• 21 to 23 percent of adults -- or some 40 to 44 million of the 191 million U.S. adults demonstrated skills at the lowest level of achievement. At this level (Level 1), respondents were asked to perform such tasks as totaling an entry on a bank deposit slip, locating the time or place of a meeting on a form, and identifying a piece of specific information in a brief news article.

• Some 25 to 28 percent of the respondents, representing about 50 million adults nationwide, demonstrated skills at the next level of proficiency (Level 2) on each of the literacy scales. While their skills were more varied than those of individuals performing at Level 1, their repertoire was still quite limited. For example, adults at this level were able to calculate the total cost of a purchase and determine the difference in price between two items. They could also locate a particular intersection on a street map and enter background information on a simple form.

• Nearly one-third of the survey participants, or about 61 million adults nationwide, could perform at Level 3. Those at this level were able to understand and make use of information from a fairly long text and to determine whether to use addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division in solving a problem based on information contained in the directive.

• Eighteen to 21 percent of the respondents, or 34 to 40 million adults, performed at the two highest levels -- Levels 4 and 5. These adults could perform challenging tasks based on long, complicated documents and text passages.

• Many factors help to explain why so many adults demonstrated English literacy skills in the lowest proficiency level. Twenty-five percent of the respondents who performed at this level were immigrants who may have been just learning to speak English. nearly two-thirds of those at Level 1 (62 percent) had terminated their education before completing high school. A third were age 65 or older, and 26 percent had physical, mental. or health conditions that kept them from participating fully at work, school, housework, or other activities. Nineteen percent of the respondents at Level 1 reported having visual difficulties that affect their ability to read print.

• The approximately 90 million adults who performed at Levels 1 and 2 did not necessarily perceive themselves as being "at risk." Across the literacy scales, 66 to 75 percent of the adults in the lowest level and 93 to 97 percent in the second lowest level described themselves as being able to read or write English "well" or "very well." Moreover, only 14 to 25 percent of the adults at Level 1, and 4 to 12 percent in Level 2 said they get a lot of help from family members or friends with reading everyday documents and performing basic arithmetic tasks. Researchers concluded that it's possible their skills, while limited, allow them to meet some -- and perhaps even most -- of their personal and occupational needs.

• The literacy proficiencies of young adults assessed in 1992 were somewhat lower, on average, than the proficiencies of young adults who participated in a 1985 literacy survey -- 11 to 14 points lower in comparable categories. Although other factors may also be involved, these performance discrepancies are probably due in large part to changes in the demographic composition of the population -- in particular, the dramatic increase of young Hispanic adults, many of whom were born in other countries and are learning English as a second language.

• Predictably, adults with relatively few years of education were more likely to perform at lower literacy levels than those who completed high school or received some type of postsecondary education. For example, on each of the three literacy scales, some 75 to 80 percent of adults with 0 to 8 years of education are at Level 1, while fewer than 1 percent are at Levels 4 and 5. In contrast, among adults with a high school diploma, 16 to 20 percent are at the lowest level on each scale, while 10 to 13 percent are at the two highest levels. Only 4 percent of adults with four year college degrees are at Level 1; 44 to 50 percent are at the two highest levels.

• Black, American Indian/Alaskan Native, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander adults were more likely than White adults to perform at the lowest two literacy levels. These performance differences are affected by many factors. For example, with the exception of Asian/Pacific Islander adults, individuals in these groups tended to have completed fewer years of schooling in this country than had White individuals. Further, many adults of Asian/Pacific Islander and Hispanic origin were born in other countries and were likely to have learned English as a second language.

• With one exception, for each racial or ethnic group, individuals born in the United States outperformed those born abroad. The exception occurs among Black adults, where there was essentially no difference (only 3-7 points. Among White and Asian/Pacific Islander adults, the average differences between native-born and foreign-born individuals range from 26 to 41 points across the literacy scales. Among Hispanic adults, the differences range from 40 to 94 points in favor of the native born.

The report concluded:

• Literacy can be thought of as a currency in this society. Just as adults with little money have difficulty meeting their basic needs, those with limited literacy skills are likely to find it more challenging to pursue their goals -- whether these involve job advancement, consumer decisionmaking, citizenship, or other aspects of their lives. Even if adults who performed at the lowest literacy levels are not experiencing difficulties at present, they may be at risk as the nation's economy and social fabric continue to change.

Though this report did not prescribe solutions to the problem of widespread illiteracy, it established benchmark standards for future studies of progress toward the achievement of Goal #5.

Lifelong Learning

The idea of lifelong learning is linked to the assumption that in order to compete in a rapidly changing marketplace, American workers will have to be more adaptable to on-the-job changes and to face the reality that they may have to learn new skills in order to survive. Yet U.S. workers seem unwilling to face the possibility that their jobs may disappear or that they may have to adapt to new challenges and techniques in the work place.

• A study conducted by Cornell University found that U.S. workers were far more likely than Belgian, German, or Japanese workers to predict that their present job skills will be quite useful in five years. U.S. satisfaction with current job skills contrasts most sharply with the work force in Japan, where fewer than one in five workers predict that their present skills will be sufficient to meet job demands in the future.

• Delegating responsibility to employees to inspect quality, improve productivity, and design better ways to do their own jobs has been found to be a characteristic common to many competitive, high performance companies. Yet U.S. workers were much less likely than German and Japanese workers to report that they strongly agreed that workers would be expected to think up better ways to do their jobs.

(National Education Goals Report, 1992)

Obviously, Americans must learn to be more adaptable -- more open to new educational challenges, particularly those that provide such basic skills as reading and writing. In many respects the problem of illiteracy, like the problem of dropouts, is one of motivation. A number of programs have been developed to address current deficiencies. However, many of those who would profit most from such initiatives are as yet unwilling to take advantage of the opportunity afforded them.

Goal #6

Every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning.

Most U.S. educators and public policy leaders acknowledge that drugs and violence have played a role in the decline of the Nation's schools. Though every school is not significantly affected by these problems, all too many are -- particularly in major urban areas. Not only are alcohol and other drugs available on or near the campuses of many elementary and secondary schools, but in recent years a wave of violence has swept over the public school system that has affected not only students, but teachers and administrators as well. Though recent trends in drug use have been modestly encouraging, violence seems to continue unchecked in many populous areas; and murder is now the prime cause of death among young Blacks.

The 1992 Goals report included an update of information on the use of alcohol and other drugs by 12th graders and on the degree to which young people have been the victims of violent crimes. As for drug use, the Report offered some encouraging news as well as some disturbing figures:

• Between 1990 and 1991, overall use of alcohol and cocaine among 12th graders declined. Fifty-four percent reported using alcohol during the past 30 days (down from 57% in 1990), while 1% used cocaine (down from 2% in 1990). Reported marijuana use remained at 14%.

• Between 1980 and 1991, use of alcohol and other drugs at school has declined noticeably, according to student reports. For example, at-school use of marijuana dropped from 21% to 5%; at-school use of alcohol dropped from 14% to 7%; and at-school cocaine use dropped from 3% to 1%.

• On the other hand, according to a 1991 study, students in progressively higher grades were less likely to disapprove of adults consuming large quantities of alcohol or marijuana, and were more likely to engage in these behaviors themselves.

• In contrast, student disapproval of adults using cocaine was consistently high across grades, and the percentage of students using cocaine was consistently low.

While alcohol and other drug use was declining, violence was on the upswing; and many students were victimized, in most cases by other young people.

• Between 1990 and 1991, the number of 12th graders who reported being threatened with a weapon at school increased from 13 percent to 16 percent.

• This figure is consistent with a pattern of increases in instances of student victimization at school from 1980 to 1991. In 1980, 34 percent of students reported theft of property, and by 1991 the figure had risen to 42 percent. In 1980, 25 percent said their property had been vandalized, and by 1991 the figure stood at 28 percent. Between 1980 and 1991, the percentage of students who had been threatened with a weapon rose from 11 percent to 15 percent, and those who had been threatened without a weapon climbed from 19 percent to 26 percent. During the same period, the number of students deliberately injured in some way other than with a weapon increased from 11 percent to 15 percent, and those injured with a weapon rose from 5 percent to 7 percent.

Student use of drugs is greater outside of school and at school events than in school, but acts of violence are all too common during school hours.

• In 1991, as noted above, 7% of 10th-grade students reported using alcohol at school during the school day within the previous year. On the other hand, 12% used alcohol near school, and 19% used alcohol at a school dance, game, or other event.

• Substantial numbers of 8th and 10th graders are also victims of violent acts, theft, and vandalism at school, according to student reports. Threats and injuries to younger students are more common than to students in higher grades. For example, 19 percent of 8th graders have been threatened with a weapon and 9 percent have actually been injured by a weapon, as contrasted only 16 and 7 percent for 12th graders. Likewise, 34 percent of 8th graders have had their personal property vandalized, as opposed to only 28 percent of 12th graders.

However, the 1992 Goals Panel report showed some progress in restoring discipline to the classroom. The picture is still disturbing, but the improvement is measurable.

• Between 1988 and 1991, fewer high school teachers reported that student misbehavior interfered with their teaching, and more felt that principals and other teachers consistently enforced school rules. In 1988, 41 percent cited student discipline as a significant deterrent to teaching. while in 1991 the number had fallen to 33 percent. In 1982, 82 percent believed the principal backed them in the enforcement of rules and 50 percent believed that other teachers were supportive. In 1991, those figures had risen to 86 percent and 61 percent respectively.

• In 1991, 68 percent of all high school teachers felt that they had substantial control over their students in the classroom -- up from 67 percent in 1988.

However, there are some trends that suggest discipline is still a growing problem in some areas.

• Skipping school and classes is a fairly common practice among students in Grades 8, 10, and 12, especially among Hispanics and among students in higher grades.

• The percentage of 12th graders who skipped class increased by two percentage points between 1990 and 1991.

These figures suggest both progress and continuing problems in the achievement of Goal #6. In addition to the statistics on drug and alcohol use and student victimization, the Goals Panel also reports that teachers are the victims of abuse, both verbal and physical, though the latter is rare. Too many students also lack the discipline to maintain good attendance records and to be serious about their studies while in class. Clearly all segments of society must cooperate if these problems are to be solved. Schools and government have a part to play in achieving this goal, but they cannot effect significant change without the cooperation of families and communities.

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[Part III - Goals 1-3]

[Part III - Conclusion]