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Becoming a teacher in Japan today is quite competitive, although there is variation in the degree of competition depending on the level of school and the subject. In Naka I was told that the ratio of applicants to those accepted for high school teachers is recently as high as 30-to-1, depending on the city, type of school, and special area of competence. A math teacher pointed out that it is not as difficult for a candidate in the field of mathematics. For example, the student-teacher training began on the third day of my visit at Meiji High School. Thirty-two student teachers, all graduates of this high school, arrived to do their 2-week training for certification. I was told by the vice principal and several teachers that it would not be unusual if none of these students actually were hired as teachers next year because of the stiff competition. However, of the 32 students, not one was aiming to be a math teacher.
Both the requirement of a college degree and the competition to enter the profession reinforce the high status of teaching. Competition is also rigorous at the elementary and junior high levels, although it is not quite as intense for high school teachers. These levels have a combined application process, so even though teachers may expect to be assigned to elementary school and apply for that position, they may find themselves hired for a junior high school, or vice versa. According to a report published by the Naka City Public Schools, of qualified applicants who sat the examination to become an elementary school teacher for the school year beginning in April 1995, 61 of 455, or 13.4 percent, were hired. For those applicants wishing to teach kindergarten or children with physical or mental handicaps there were 12.3 and 8.5 applicants respectively for each of these positions. In 1992, there were 3.2 applicants per position for elementary schools nationally, 5.0 for junior high schools, and 6.4 for senior high schools (Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, 1995, p. 122). With the economic downturn continuing through the 1990s, however, the rates have been increasing, probably because more college graduates who cannot find jobs in private industry aim for the security of a teaching position. Within Naka City junior high schools and high schools—separate from the prefectural schools examined in this study—the competitive rates ranged from 35 to 1 for social studies majors to approximately 10 to 1 and 9 to 1 for math and science majors, respectively. The least competitive positions appeared to be in technical and vocational skills, but those numbers are somewhat deceptive since decreasing student enrollments have been publicized and have led to fewer applicants overall for technical teaching positions. Administrators reported that the ratios of applicants to positions at the prefectural level were similar to those at the city levels for different school levels and fields.
The degree of competitiveness and the status of teachers vary with the overall economic situation: according to respondents who are administrators, teaching becomes a more desirable career when other jobs are less available or more unstable. A high school math teacher explained to me that when he became a teacher over 35 years ago most teachers were "rich, only people with a certain status. Now those kinds of people don't go that way at all (become teachers)." He explained that at the beginning his salary was very low and, since he had to live off his salary rather than being independently wealthy like most teachers, it was difficult. He first worked at a commercial high school and many of the students took jobs after graduation at textile mills. They often encouraged him to quit teaching and to come work with them because they made so much more money! He felt the situation was better for teachers now. Another teacher told me, "now the economy is bad so lots of people want to become teachers. But at that time—19 years ago when he took the examinations—there were only about 2 times as many (applicants as positions)." A math teacher at Meiji High School described the general hiring situation for teachers of mathematics:
At my time it wasn't that difficult to become a teacher. Maybe it was quite different between math and other subjects. But for mathematics, there aren't very many at all who have the license [the license is obtained through credits at college]. Of those people, those who try to become teachers are again a small percentage. So I didn't really think it would be that much of a problem to become a teacher. Because it was within mathematics.
This teacher continued to say that it still isn't difficult to become a mathematics teacher because the coursework is so demanding.
I haven't yet had a student teacher in mathematics, they are that few. Even if you want to become one, a regular person can't do it. Those who are just so-so at math won't make it.
Becoming a math or science teacher appears to be less competitive, but the college course work and the employment examinations are difficult. Math and science teachers constitute a select group. In addition, high-achieving math and science students have many opportunities in industry that are unavailable to humanities students. As noted above, the competitive rates are currently nearer 10 to 1 than the 30 or more applicants to each position seen in the humanities.
The principal at Matsu Elementary school, who had spent several years at the Naka City Board of Education and had been involved in hiring and promotions, remembered the selection process as follows:
There are various credits you take to get a teachers' license . . . . Within universities they have thought a lot about the curriculum and even if it is well constructed, not all students will necessary develop along with it. The license isn't enough in order to become a teacher, they have to take an examination. Next year there will be 170 Naka City elementary school teachers hired. According to yesterday's newspaper, there are now about 16 times that many who have applied. How we choose them, I think that is the second most important thing. It is hard to know what type of test is best. It's not only a paper and pencil test. It is quite difficult to test how much teaching ability they have.
Academic ability alone does not allow an individual to enter teaching. The principal at Tancho Elementary school, who also had experience interviewing applicants, talked in detail about what he remembered about the procedures for selecting teachers. He described them as follows:
I guess it is about what kind of person they are. First there is a test of their abilities–in all of the subjects. For those who are above a certain basic level, we then have an interview. There we are looking at their personal character and their ideas toward education. Their way of thinking and ideas about children. Their kindness and thoughtfulness (yasashisa and omoiyari). That is the most important for teachers. So we evaluate that at the interview. And then, only those who are employable are chosen. We present various problems. For example, "you are in the classroom, and now you are about to go on the school excursion. What cautions are you going to tell the children?" We have them think that the interview meeting is a classroom and to think of the interviewers as the children. There are about five of us there. For example, "next week is the school trip. Among the five of us, one is sick, how shall we treat that person?" And we also ask them various common sense questions about education. I said "common sense" right? Since they are trying to become teachers, we of course expect them to know all about the contents of the Course of Study. We ask them about the important points only. And through that sort of thing, we can tell if they are the sort of person who would be a good teacher of the students.
This description summarizes the contents of the screening process for new teachers. The process is lengthy and conducted by older teachers with years of experience, like the two principals quoted above.
Training takes place formally as directed and is provided by the city or prefectural board of education and also within individual schools. All prospective teachers spend 2 to 4 weeks in a school as part of their college training. The school in which they do this student teaching is usually either affiliated with their college or university or is one from which they graduated.
Training for novice teachers. Beginning in 1989, education authorities agreed to institute more extensive training for novice teachers. By 1992, all new teachers at national and public elementary, junior high, and high schools and at special education schools were receiving the 1st-year training. During their 1st year, all high school and junior high school teachers work a reduced teaching load of about 10 hours of teaching a week and are expected to go to the Educational Center one day a week for training. Training involves visiting other schools and other education-related institutions and writing extensive lesson plans. Some of the trainees present lessons while others take the role of students and must write lengthy critiques. At the elementary school level there are 90 hours of training time, 60 of which are within their school. The principal at Tancho told me that the training within the school was the most important because it is the closest to the teachers. He described how administrators carefully balance the mix of teachers at each grade level, especially if one is a novice teacher:
If there are three classes (at a particular grade), class one will be a veteran teacher, class two will be the new teacher, and class three will be a teacher in the middle (in terms of experience as a teacher).
This system ensures both an assigned mentor to each new teacher and a group of colleagues with varying levels of experience. The system attempts to reinforce sharing of information among teachers and the guidance of younger teachers by more experienced teachers.
On-going training. In Naka Prefecture, as in most prefectures in Japan, teachers spend extra time during their 6th and 10th and 20th year at training sessions outside of their school. These sessions again provide a chance to interact with teachers at other schools who are at the same career stage. The sessions also usually provide some time to meet with others who teach the same subjects. Teachers also are required to submit lengthy lesson plans and other reports during these years. When a teacher becomes a grade-level head teacher or advances to other administrative positions, they also attend training sessions.
Teachers have chances during certain training experiences to visit major research centers and to see advanced laboratories and equipment that their schools might purchase. A few teachers complained that they have no chances to return to graduate school in order to update their science training; however, plans have been made since 1993 to allow up to 1,250 teachers to return to graduate school for 1 to 2 years (Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, 1995, p. 128). All new teachers participate in a training session that involves overnight stays, sometimes in the form of a cruise to cities in Japan with colleagues from other prefectures. Teachers also periodically participate in overnight outings devoted to training sessions in their subject area or on specific tasks, such as career guidance, within a school.
Two teachers in this study were also planning overseas training trips: nationally, among teachers older than 35, 1,200 are sent overseas for thirty days and 3,800 are sent for sixteen days. Among teachers under 35 years of age, 180 teachers are sent abroad for 60 days (Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, 1995, p. 129). In addition, some cities, such as Naka, have additional programs for overseas and other types of training. The vice principal at Shimogawa junior high school explained to me that in Naka City, 75 teachers are chosen each year among those with at least 17 years of experience to be "researchers" (kenkyuuiin). Most people apply several times before being chosen, and an administrator's recommendation is required to be eligible to apply. This is called "in-country exchange study" and chosen teachers get time off from their own school to travel to a place of their choice within Japan for a few weeks of study during the year. One teacher is also chosen to go abroad from this group. There are also 25 younger teachers chosen for another program and they are called "research students" (kenkyuuiinsei). He told me that it is hard to get chosen and then the research itself is difficult. Most of the meetings among those chosen for these special research positions do not start until 6:00 or 7:00 p.m. on school nights, so the positions are time-consuming.
Evaluation of training. The training system appears to be extensive, but the principal at Matsu echoed several other respondents when he mildly criticized the structure of this training system:
That is a 'big systems' way that teachers are trained. It would be nice if that were all that was needed. What I think is that it depends on the teachers themselves. It depends on what they are willing to do (yaruki). On their way of thinking and their enthusiasm (iyoku). It is on those things that their futures are made. Whether they are men or women, that doesn't matter, but whether they love children and if they want to become better and better teachers. If they have that enthusiasm, they will become wonderful teachers. On the other hand, if they don't have that desire, no matter what happens, they won't advance and will become problem teachers (zannen na sensei).
Through various conversations, interviews, and observations I learned that the evaluation of teacher training is somewhat mixed. Older teachers and administrators waxed nostalgic for a time when teachers trained each other and themselves without the need of a formal system. For example, an official at the Education Center told me, even though he had been involved in developing the current training system, that he had also argued that the informal training of the past had advantages. His explanation of why informal peer training was less likely to happen now was rather general, "Teachers could learn a lot from each other, between the elders (senpai) and beginners (kohai). There is a lot (to be learned) there." According to him, the diminished sense of a clear hierarchy is why a formal training system for teachers has become essential; in the past, according to him, teachers with more experience would naturally instruct and guide younger teachers and young teachers expected to be guided and taught.
The informal training I observed seemed to emphasize human relationships and to encourage the transmission of knowledge and experience from more experienced to less experienced teachers. Three fourth-grade teachers, including a 1st-year teacher, a 6th-year teacher, and a 20th-year teacher, reported that they discuss things among themselves continually and are eager to help each other. In a more formal setting, the vice principal at Meiji lectured a group of 33 student teachers during their 2nd day at the school. An excerpt of the talk is presented here:
Students look at you with their individual values, so some will not like you. But you have to like all the students and like teaching your subject. There are students who don't fit into my values. Outside of school you can decide on people by your values, but toward students you can't do that. The strict thing is not to discriminate. Second, you must balance being kind and being strict. And third, you must be enthusiastic for research. Every year I teach 15-, 16-, and 17-year old students. And every year the difference in age gets greater. I can't teach based on my youth and good looks anymore. But I have to compete with young teachers. So I have to study and improve my teaching. It is good to be a teacher, but it is really difficult.
This vice principal had been at Meiji for over 20 years and all the student teachers were graduates of this school. Although this is "big systems" training because of the formal group setting and large number of student teachers, he also revealed some of his personal struggles during his half-hour talk to the young potential teachers.
Training sessions during the 6th and 10th years of work got rather mixed reviews from the teachers in this study. For example, one high school science teacher gave a typical response, regarding his 10th-year training when I asked whether it was useful:
Well, mm (he laughed). You hear about various other teachers' experiences and can compare them to your own. That has some meaning, I guess. So I wouldn't say it was zero in terms of usefulness. Well, when you have taught for nine years, mostly you just end up saying 'oh, right' when you hear people talk. There wasn't anything in particular that made me think 'Wow, that is amazing.'
Many teachers and administrators told me that the content of the training was not always as important as the chance to mingle with peers and reflect upon one's job. There also seemed to be a consensus that the work required for in-service training, such as preparing extensive lesson plans or reports about the training, was useful because it required self-reflection rather than because it provided new information. But other teachers complained that while gathering together with other teachers was sometimes enjoyable, it took time away from their own teaching:
When you are away from things (because of attending mandatory training sessions) you can't do the things at your school. If something happens on the day you have to be away–things are limited to happening on those days when you take those kind of business trips, you know. Someone gets hurt or one is kicked or something. So when I am away I worry quite a bit.
This teacher continued to complain that the speakers at training sessions are usually well-known (erai) and do not say things that will embarrass themselves. "They don't want to say things like, 'I tried this and it didn't go well.'" He described how the teachers at his 10th-year training session rebelled by not attending what they saw as useless sessions and instead divided themselves into subject groups and organized renegade training sessions.
(These sessions) had some meaning. (For example) we learned how to use computers to do science. Of course, each individual's example was different, so even if we talked about doing similar things we would respond cooperatively to one person. We would each focus on the area which we could do well. And naturally each person's ideas developed. It wasn't only studying but also how something should be used, each of the ideas was different and they would all come up.
The best training, according to this teacher and most others, was self-designed and cooperative, not led by elite teachers or administrators. The renegade sessions he described seemed to coincide with administrators' opinions that the best training is the informal sharing of information by experienced teachers with their less experienced colleagues.
When I asked a science teacher at Chuo Junior High School how the 10th-year training could be improved, he described how difficult it is for older teachers to ask informally to observe regular classes. He concluded that training could be improved by providing opportunities to observe classes, rather than sitting through lectures. Overall, his comments were quite critical of tenth-year training. He echoed what I heard from many teachers, i.e., that they learned the most from observing actual classroom situations and hearing from experienced teachers about their struggles as well as their successes. Despite complaints about training, most training sessions also include time for teachers to interact informally, and this can provide the chance for reflection and casual exchange, albeit in a required format, that teachers say they crave.
The principal at Matsu Elementary School told me that probably about 40 percent of teachers participate at some time in voluntary training sessions, organized by the school board or education center, for which they must use their evening or vacation time. However, one high school teacher told me that the best way to learn things is to ask someone, particularly more experienced teachers in the school, directly. He concluded that although you can choose voluntary training sessions based on your own interests, there are not usually sessions offered that address essential things needed for day-to-day teaching.
On the other hand, most teachers voluntarily participate in teacher-run subject study groups that meet in the evenings. Among the sample of teachers I interviewed, all had participated at some point in their teaching career, although several teachers were not participating currently because of other commitments. The evaluation of these study groups ranged from very positive to a feeling that the things discussed in the groups were too difficult to understand. The contents of study groups and research meetings generally include discussion of new textbooks or books on teaching methods, preparation and sharing of useful lesson plans, and development of new curricula or criteria for specific subjects and grade levels. One special Saturday session I attended for social studies teachers at night high schools included a student-produced video and panel discussion with the students involved. The hour-long session with five students was followed by presentations by four teachers of their own research on night high schools and teaching. Meetings sometimes include a guest lecturer or a participant presentation followed by formal questions and answers. Teachers often reconvene over drinks or coffee for further discussion in a more informal atmosphere. These groups offer time to learn, present ideas and research, network, and socialize.
Summary. To summarize, 1st-year teachers receive about 60 hours of in-school training and 30 hours of out-of-school training and 5 or more days of training involving overnight stays. The in-school training mainly involves guidance by experienced teachers who are assigned as mentors, formal observations of model classes, and informal discussions. The out-of-school training includes lectures, practice teaching, volunteer work in the community, study groups, and visits to schools, educational centers for children, welfare homes, and private businesses. The goal is to learn from teachers in other schools and to learn about other views of education and teaching. Monbusho also sponsors an 11-day training cruise each summer for a selected group of 2,400 new teachers. The cruises include lectures by specialists on teaching methods, presentations about the structure of schools and the role of teachers, and visits to vocational, academic, and cultural institutions in port cities. The goal is for participating teachers to develop relationships across regional and school boundaries. Teachers not selected for the national cruises generally participate in local overnight training programs for beginning teachers.
Three of my interviewees and several principals had either already traveled to or were about to travel to foreign countries through training programs designed for observations in foreign schools. One reason schools were so receptive to my presence was that I was seen as a source of information about foreign schools. More specifically, two teachers had upcoming foreign trips planned and used my visit to ask questions as part of their preparations. Also, the vice principal at Minami called me after my visit to ask for my help in finding good interpreters for an upcoming Monbusho-sponsored trip to visit U.S. schools in Ohio, Colorado, and California for which he was an organizer. This emphasis on visiting foreign schools as part of life-long education for teachers would seem to reinforce strongly a sense of professionalism and the importance of continued learning.
Elementary and junior high school teachers are hired by the city board of education and high school teachers are hired by the prefectural board of education. All teachers at both levels reported that they saw themselves as hired by their respective board of education, not by an individual school, so they expected to be transferred among various schools, usually without being consulted. They also knew they might be transferred out of classrooms into the education research center, the board of education offices, or other administrative or research positions. Teachers have almost no control over their assignments.
One female elementary school teacher with 6 years of teaching experience commented as we discussed how much she liked her current school and colleagues,
Teacher: Let me stay here for another nine years! (She laughed.) I will leave this year! I say it in a loud voice. I will leave this school.
CK: Is it already decided?
Teacher: It's set. In your first school you can only take six years. I will move schools next April, then get married, and then, after about half a year, get pregnant. To that degree my circumstances will change, but they aren't likely to change that much.
I inquired as to whether her wedding plans were already made and she laughed and told me it was a joke, but she seemed quite serious about the time table that women often follow. Although she is not happy about leaving her current school, the knowledge that she will most likely be transferred allowed her to plan for and expect the change.
In general, all the teachers and administrators believed that rotations through various schools were important for both the development of individual teachers and the morale of the school. Almost everyone responded similarly to the experienced high school teacher quoted here:
If you are at one school too long, there is a part of you that gets too comfortable with things. We are hired by the prefecture. We are teachers but we are also civil servants, right? We are transferred regularly, and that kind of system is probably good. I have been here 11 years and that is a bit too long. If you get too intimate with the flow of things at one school and are active within that, you get so you feel like you want to move on.
The belief is that although it might be more comfortable to get used to one school and remain there, it is also not very challenging and does not push teachers to see the need for change in various areas of a school. Teachers also regularly told me that although they would like to be able to choose the schools in which they work, they recognize that because the choices of all teachers could not be accommodated, they would not always get their preferences.
In addition, within a school, teachers expect to teach all grades. One sixth-grade teacher commented on his desire to teach many grade levels, a sentiment expressed by most interviewees:
Teacher: I really had wanted to try first grade. From the start I had taught second grade, then third grade. Then fifth grade, sixth grade, fifth grade, and then I went and had sixth, then fifth, then sixth, then fifth, over nine years. So I definitely wanted to teach first grade and put in my request. So it happened that I got to teach first grade. And I didn't know anything. I had taught fifth and sixth. But there was a veteran female teacher at that time. And another teacher in her thirties, about in the middle. And the head teacher was over 50. I was taught a lot about first grade. And it was interesting for me too — I learned a lot.
Again, the most familiar work is not viewed as the best way to develop one's teaching skills. Several teachers told me that teaching a variety of ages was necessary to be able to understand children. One sixth-grade teacher quoted above even suggested that it was easier to respect childrens' developmental needs when moving between first and sixth grade. The knowledge gained through a variety of teaching experiences seems to be valued.
Similarly, reflecting the view that it is important to be knowledgeable about many aspects of a school, the principal at Meiji High School explained to me that even though his major was English, he did not want to see himself only as an English teacher. As he became an employee at each school to which he was assigned, he began to be able to
grasp general school management–not just look at my own major subject but also to have a goal of learning school management. When you get to be a certain age, from your mid-forties to about fifty, you become the center of the school. Then it is helpful if you have broad knowledge of the school system.
This principal also emphasized that in order to gain this knowledge, experience at unfamiliar and less prestigious schools is also helpful:
Before I came here, I had been a night high school principal for five years. I have come through them all: a commercial high school, an academic high school, and a night high school.... It is a bit inconvenient but necessary in order to have a broad view of education.
I asked every teacher about whether or not they felt the job rotation system was coercive, and although a few agreed that it could be seen that way, they argued that it was necessary and a way that all teachers got various experiences. Because rotation of teachers is widely used throughout most public school systems in Japan and has a history, being transferred regularly appears to be accepted as a part of the work of a teacher. Because all teachers are subject to transfers, being transferred is generally not viewed as either a reward or a punishment, but as a natural part of teachers' work careers.
[Chapter 5 - Teachers and the Teaching Profession in Japan (Part 4 of 7)]