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By Douglas Trelfa
The field research on national standards focused primarily on interviews and conversations held with teachers, administrators, students, and parents, as well as on observations in classrooms, on school premises, and in everyday settings. All interviews were conducted in Japanese, tape recorded, and later transcribed and translated into English for storage and analysis.
At the primary site, Naka City, Douglas Trelfa conducted all of the interviews and observations pertaining to the topic of national standards, except for a few interviews with officials at Monbusho and those with school board members and professors of mathematics education, which were conducted by Eileen Wu. Naoko Moriyoshi collected interview and observation data at the schools in Minami City, while Gerald LeTendre collected the interview and observation data in Kita City. Wu, Moriyoshi, and LeTendre shared their data with the author, and these data were included in the analysis, and are reflected in this chapter.
In pursuit of information on national standards, the four researchers conducted 31 interviews at academic high schools, 9 at vocational high schools, 43 at junior high schools, and 15 at elementary schools. Of the total number of interviews pertaining to this topic, approximately 15 were held in Minami City and 19 in Kita City. In addition, approximately 32 classroom and general observations were included in the data analysis. Printed information obtained from schools, school boards, education research institutes, and Monbusho was also integrated into research findings in this chapter.
All introductions to schools were arranged through the National Institute for Educational Research in Japan and cleared with the proper local school boards. Many of the Japanese interviewees appeared uncomfortable at first with the unstructured interview format. Most requested a list of questions before the interview. Consequently, many of the interviewers began quite formally, and most interviewees appeared tense or reserved at first. However, the researchers found that as the interview progressed, the interviewees became less tense and were able to talk freely and at length.
Another factor contributing to the initial tension in the interviews was the fact that nearly all of the interviews were conducted in principals' offices. Third parties, such as principals, vice-principals, or teachers, were present during many of the interviews. The interviews with students were all conducted as group interviews, with all but one being supervised by a principal or vice-principal. No interviews for this topic were held outside the school. It is unlikely, therefore, that critical perspectives were adequately represented in this research.
We believe that our sample includes students of above average ability and consisted mostly of student council members. Teachers were often selected on the basis of availability on the particular day we were visiting and their willingness to cooperate. In most cases, the interviews with teachers were conducted with teachers whose classrooms we observed. Almost all parents interviewed were members of the PTA.
The Japanese Ministry of Education (Monbusho) plays a central role in the development and maintenance of national education standards in Japan. The Ministry develops national curricular guidelines which comprise the educational standards. In addition to the national curricular guidelines, the Ministry enforces academic standards by certifying textbooks, overseeing regional and national entrance examinations, and regulating the training of teachers.
Standards of education in Japan are based on the Monbusho curricular guidelines. Monbusho develops and revises national curricular guidelines approximately every 10 years. This has been the case since the end of World War II when the first course of study, based on an American model, was introduced. These 10-year revisions have allowed Monbusho to respond to changes in national priorities in education.
Revisions of the Monbusho curriculum are developed by Monbusho-led review groups that consist of Monbusho officials and nationally-recognized education authorities. The content of these meetings are widely publicized.
Revisions of the curriculum are first published as a set of proposed curricular guidelines. The proposed curricular guidelines have typically consisted of the following: a survey assessing the old curriculum, a delineation of new curriculum goals, a proposal for a new curriculum, and an evaluation of the proposal by an in-service teachers' group. For a period of 3 years following the initial publication of the proposed guidelines, Monbusho finalizes and conducts tests of the new curriculum at selected schools. This gradual approach allows time for dissemination and ample time for schools to implement the curricular reforms.
The first post-war Monbusho curriculum was implemented in 1947 after the United States returned sovereign powers to Japan with the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty. This curriculum emphasized life experiences and practical knowledge. The second national curriculum, which was implemented in 1958, emphasized basic academic skills, particularly in arithmetic and Japanese. Monbusho continued the policy of higher academic standards with the third curriculum, published in 1968. This curriculum also reflected Monbusho's attempt to modernize the Japanese education system. As part of the modernization effort, Monbusho sought to integrate the junior high school and elementary school curricula more effectively and to improve the curricula in all subjects. Improvements in math and science education were integral parts of the modernization effort.
By the late 1970s, the Japanese Teachers' Union and others began expressing concern over what they called "educational overheating" (kyoiku no kanetsuka). According to these critics, Japanese students were studying excessively hard because of the increasing focus on entrance examinations and entrance into highly ranked colleges. In an effort to cool down the "educational overheating" and respond to these critics, Monbusho reduced the total number of class hours by 10 percent in the curriculum revision of the late 1970s.
Recently, some Japanese policy makers have expressed the opinion that curricular revisions should be more frequent in this age of rapid social change in Japan. In response to these suggestions, Monbusho and its advisors are currently considering a revision period of 8 years.
The current curricular guidelines (The New Monbusho Curriculum) were published as a set of proposed guidelines in 1988. Implementation has been in stages, with the elementary school curricular guidelines having been implemented in 1992. The new curriculum includes a reduction of emphasis on arithmetic and science in the early school grades. Since 1968, arithmetic has been reduced from about 19 percent to 17 percent of the sixth-grade total class hours. Likewise, science has been reduced from about 13 percent to 10 percent of total class hours (Calculations based on data presented in Mizuhara, 1992).
The new curriculum establishes more electives in junior high school. In addition, there are changes in moral instruction and in the treatment of the Japanese national anthem and flag. Overall, the new Monbusho curriculum mandates the following major changes:
Monbusho describes the new curriculum as being based on "a new perspective on academic ability" (atarashii gakuryokukan). The purpose for this shift in policy was explained by an education official: "Knowledge-centered education was taught to students in the past, but now we want to find ways of motivating them to learn. This is the area we are putting great effort into at present."
With the new curriculum, Monbusho states that it is seeking to cultivate students who are, in the words of one teacher, "creative, philosophical, able to make judgments and decisions and able to express themselves." These are the qualities that some reformers of Japanese education have said the Monbusho curriculum and Japanese schools did not emphasize in the past and that they hope can be cultivated among Japanese children currently in school.
Information about revisions in Monbusho's curriculum guidelines reaches the schools through Monbusho publications and a series of scheduled workshops that are to inform schools of the changes in the curriculum.
Monbusho also publishes its curricular guidelines and makes these guidelines widely available. There are three sets of guidelines, one each for elementary, junior, and senior high schools. Each of these three sets of curricular guidelines is available in soft cover at any major bookstore in Japan. Each booklet of curricular guidelines is anywhere from 120 to 220 pages in length and costs under $5.
These guidelines in turn are used by textbook publishers, regional education authorities, schools, and teachers to develop curricular materials that conform to the national guidelines. Although this system gives a great deal of responsibility to education authorities in the prefecture and city, it is not uncommon for Japanese children in widely separated regions to be studying the same topics during any given week, for reasons that will become clearer in the remainder of this chapter.
After the publication of the revised curricular guidelines, Monbusho schedules a series of workshops throughout the nation for representatives of regional boards of education and for school teachers. These participants, in turn, conduct workshops for other teachers in their own school districts. Several of these workshops are scheduled each year between the publication and implementation of the guidelines. After the official implementation of the curricular guidelines, workshops are conducted less frequently, about once a year.
In spite of its considerable administrative powers, Monbusho does not closely monitor conformity to the national curricular guidelines at the school level. Monbusho policy allows local boards of education and schools to make adjustments in the national curricular guidelines that are considered to be appropriate for the local level.
However, our discussions with regional officials indicate that regional boards of education typically tend to interpret the Monbusho guidelines strictly. Schools are also allowed to formulate their own curricula as long as the schools' curricula are based on the Monbusho curriculum guidelines. However, since the task of devising a school curriculum involves considerable effort by teachers, most schools adopt the curriculum developed by the municipal board of education.
To facilitate the proper implementation of the curriculum, the Monbusho curriculum guidelines make clear the content, the desired order, and the duration of instruction for all subjects and all grades. The topics of study for each school subject during each school year are listed, but detailed descriptions of instructional material are not presented. For example, the course of study in mathematics for the eighth grade presents algebraic calculation of formulas as the first topic and methods of data analysis and frequency distributions as the last. The guidelines do not contain descriptions of formulas that need to be memorized, or other explicit descriptions of content.
In summary, the Monbusho develops national curricular guidelines for elementary, junior, and senior high schools approximately once every 10 years. The curricular guidelines are published and made widely available. Prior to and after publication of the guidelines, Monbusho schedules workshops throughout the country in order to disseminate the new curricular guidelines to regional boards of education and school teachers. The regional boards of education are invested with the task of interpreting the curricular guidelines and developing materials that are appropriate for the region. Schools are also given authority to develop curricula based on the national curricular guidelines. Education authorities we interviewed indicated that schools and regional boards of education tend to follow the guidelines closely in part because developing material independently is time-consuming.
Textbooks. Instead of publishing its own textbooks, Monbusho allows private companies to publish textbooks that are reviewed at Monbusho for conformity to the curriculum and quality of presentation. Textbooks that survive this review process are designated as being approved. Only textbooks approved by Monbusho can be used for instruction in public schools. The number of text books approved depends on the grade level. For basic subjects in elementary school six or more companies may publish a series. For some subjects at the high level the number is smaller.
The Authorization and Research Council at Monbusho, which approves textbooks, consists of university professors and teachers in elementary and secondary schools. These experts are appointed by the Minister of Education and the Monbusho's senior curriculum specialists. The Authorization and Research Council insures that the Monbusho's curriculum standards have been followed. Each member of the Council examines proposed textbooks separately before the Council meets. The Monbusho Minister makes the final decision about certification upon receiving the Council's recommendation.
Monbusho designates three levels of textbooks (easy, medium and difficult) for high schools, but only one level for elementary and junior high schools. However, Monbusho certifies more than one textbook for each subject and grade in elementary and junior high schools. Schools can choose their own textbooks as long as the textbooks are approved by Monbusho. In addition, Monbusho does not require that textbooks be completely covered by teachers. According to an education official in Naka City,
It is not necessary to cover all the material in the textbooks.
It is not to be followed word for word. We say that one should 'teach with the textbook' not 'teach the textbook'.
The curricular guidelines are in outline form and the details of textbooks vary, depending on how authors use the outline.
Companies that publish student textbooks also publish teachers' manuals (kyoshiyo shidohyo). The use of the manuals is not mandatory. However, the teachers' manuals contain explanations of the textbook, good examples, and points about teaching. According to one teacher, "There are teachers who do not think that the manuals are necessary." It is not clear whether the typical Japanese teacher uses these resources frequently, but our conversations suggest that they are used by most teachers when planning lessons.
To supplement their own textbooks, which they receive from the school, students also use inexpensive booklets of practice problems sold by the school, and drill books, which are available at local bookstores. These drill books contain problems related to the textbooks and are available for arithmetic, science, and Japanese language. Drill books are more expensive than the booklets of practice problems but are popular among parents of children in elementary school.
Other resources for curriculum implementation. In addition to the Monbusho-approved textbooks and teachers' manuals, Japanese teachers may also rely on instructional plans (shidoan) in conducting their lessons. These instructional plans are included in some teachers' manuals. Teachers also develop instructional plans on the basis of demonstration classes for which they prepare detailed written lesson plans. The plans are then distributed to the teachers who observe their demonstration classes. The instructional plans provide information to teachers about various ways one can teach each topic effectively. For example, the instructional plan typically spells out the amount of time the teacher should spend on each instructional task.
Figure 2 is a translation of an instructional plan. Information about the general relationship of the day’s topic to previous and forthcoming topics is provided, as well as instructions to the teacher for conducting the lessons. Examples for use in class are also provided.
| Seventh Grade, C Group: Instructional Plan
12-12-1994 (Thursday) 3rd Period Instructor: Mr. T
|
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| Time allotment | Content of Instruction | Learning Activities |
Areas of instructional emphasis | Evaluation Perspective |
| 7 minutes | Review of direct proportions | Review of previous period |
Evoke the nature of direct proportions using proportion from previous period | Determine by students raising hand |
| 15 minutes | Have students find examples of direct proportions using graphs | Using various graphs of proportions find the relationship of direct proportions | Make students aware of what qualities make a direct proportion | Determine the degree of student problem solving by walking around students' desks and watching their activities |
| 17 minutes | Examine two quantities that change in equation and graphic form | Find the relationship of direct proportions from 2 changing quantities using equations, graphs, and nature |
Make students think on their own. Make students answer the reason for the relationship of direct proportions |
Determine student comprehension by calling students up to the board and having them write down answers |
| 6 minutes | Have students draw a graph that includes negative numbers | Write a graph of direct proportions including negative numbers | Make students understand that direct proportions can include negative numbers | Going between desks, determine understanding by seeing how students are doing on their printouts |
SOURCE: Third International Mathematics and Science Study, Case Study Project, 1994-95.
Monthly Meetings. Teachers stay involved with the implementation of curricula through committee work at school. At the school level, Japanese teachers coordinate the implementation of the curriculum through monthly departmental meetings, which are scheduled during a designated preparation period. These monthly departmental meetings are a forum for Japanese teachers to interact and exchange information with colleagues about curricular issues. We found that these meetings were used by math and science teachers to coordinate instruction and coverage of topics with other teachers, and, importantly, to articulate concerns and make group decisions regarding instruction.
Although students are tested in their classes on knowledge of the curriculum, formal measurement of school performance is not conducted by Monbusho. According to local education officials, Monbusho began a nationwide testing program for all students in each grade of elementary and junior high school about 30 years ago. This created an unexpected situation in which schools became highly concerned about performance relative to other schools. Consequently, some schools conducted dishonest practices to raise averages, such as asking poor achieving students to stay home. The testing of schools was discontinued because of these abuses and also because of opposition from members of the Japanese Teachers' Union who objected to the monitoring of school performance.
Currently, Monbusho conducts an academic achievement test on a national sample of schools to obtain an estimate of student attainment of the curricular objectives. These data are used to infer the percentage of the curriculum that is being mastered. Monbusho then determines what topics in the curriculum seem too easy or too difficult for each grade level and uses this information in revisions of the curriculum. An important informal measure of school performance is the fact that newspapers publish and everyone in an area knows school performance based on Shingakuritsu, which refers to the percentage of students progressing to good schools at the next level.
[Chapter 2 - The Development and Implementation of Education Standards in Japan (Part 2 of 5)]