Germany's tradition of formal education dates back to the 1800's, when the three-tiered school system originated. Historically, the highest levels of education were reserved for a small percentage of the population, while the majority received a basic education followed by training in particular trades or vocations. As the economic strength of the country has grown, the number and variety of jobs requiring higher levels of education have increased, and a growing percentage of the school-age population has pursued study at the Realschule and the Gymnasium in order to achieve higher levels of certification. While the lowest level secondary school form (the Hauptschule) has become less popular, it continues to educate nearly 30 percent of German students, leading them to vocational training programs in their adolescent years and into the work force as they approach their late teens.
The responsibility for primary and secondary education in Germany rests with state and local authorities. School funding derives primarily from the state level, and a redistribution of tax revenues among states gives them comparable budgets for funding their education systems. In addition, state funding formulas guarantee that schools within each state receive approximately equal funding.
The Conference of Ministers of Education (KMK) coordinates education efforts on a national level through representation from each of the state ministries. The KMK has developed a set of voluntary standards and guidelines for school forms, a common curriculum, and mutual recognition of school completion qualifications, all of which are implemented by the individual states. As a result, each school form has clearly stated goals and expectations for students, and the teachers' instructional activities, lesson plans, and interactions with students reflect and support these goals and expectations. Although variations are found between states with centralized versus decentralized education systems, the KMK resolutions ensure a high degree of comparability in the academic process and in implementation of standards throughout Germany. The KMK standards for all Abitur examinations are perhaps the most obvious example of these state-adopted national standards.
Another mechanism by which education has been standardized in Germany is through the regulation of textbooks. The state ministries of education publish lists of approved textbooks accompanied by regulations for their approval, introduction, and use. Schools within each state must choose their textbooks from these lists. At the Grundschulen we visited, grade level teachers indicated that they reviewed and selected textbooks together. In addition, many Grundschule and lower secondary-level teachers said that they base their course curriculum on the textbooks, since they know they conform to the state's curriculum guidelines.
With the exception of the Grundschule, the traditionally three-tiered German education system is based on the assumption that students have different capabilities that are best handled by segregating students into separate school forms beginning in the fifth grade (seventh grade in Berlin and Brandenberg) and by providing differentiated instruction to these groups of students of similar ability. As a result, each of these school forms (Hauptschule, Realschule, and Gymnasium) gears its standards, curriculum, teaching style, academic demands, and academic goals to the ability, potential, and needs of its students. Teachers and parents believe that if students are tracked to the appropriate school form for their secondary education, and if they apply themselves, they will be able to achieve at the level required by that particular school form. While most parents are very supportive of this highly tracked school system, some believe that students are tracked into the different schools at too early an age and that this puts "late bloomers" at a disadvantage. Parents who do not want to send their children to one of these traditional school forms can, in some states, send them to the comprehensive school (Gesamtschule), a school form which includes students of all levels of ability under one roof. However, in 1991-92 only 8 percent of Germany's total student population attended Gesamtschulen (MPI 1994).
Grundschule teachers are responsible for making tracking recommendations for their students, and in most cases parents are confident of the ability of teachers to assess children's ability and to recommend a school form which best "fits" each child. They view teachers as professionals who are able to evaluate the academic achievement of each student as well as pertinent personality factors (such as self-confidence and ability to work independently, which are considered particularly important for academic success at the Gymnasium). However, in most states the recommendation is only meant to provide guidance, and the final decision as to which school a child will track to rests with the child's parents.
In recent years, parental concerns about the strength of the economy and their children's prospects for future employment have caused an increasing number of parents to go against the teachers' recommendations and enroll their child in one of the higher school forms. Both the Realschule and the Gymnasium can lead to the Abitur and university study (as well as other higher education opportunities), and the Abitur is increasingly viewed as more than just an entrance ticket to the university system. Although all of the school forms were seen as providing students with a multitude of career options, students and parents believe that in an increasingly competitive job market the Abitur guarantees a greater selection of more highly paid academic and vocational opportunities, and they want to keep the door to these opportunities open. Perhaps partly because of this and partly because the Gymnasium was viewed as a rigorous and demanding school form, teachers stated that parents of Gymnasium students were interested and involved in their child's progress to a degree not found at the other forms of school. Parents of Hauptschule students seldom came to parent-teacher meetings and rarely contacted the teacher on their own initiative. A higher portion of parents of Realschule students came to parent-teacher meetings, but the highest percentage of parents attending parent-teacher conferences was always reported by teachers and administrators at Gymnasien.
Most schools in Germany offer few activities outside of classroom instruction. They have a relatively short school day and schedule a limited number of after-school activities for their students. Although the length of the school day varies somewhat across the different school forms, most secondary schools begin early in the day (between 8:00 and 8:30 a.m.) and end in the early afternoon (around 1:00 or 1:30 p.m.). Grundschulen have a shorter day, with students arriving around 8:30 and going home around 12:00 or 12:30 p.m. Core subjects at the Grundschule level include mathematics and German, and both continue as core course requirements throughout a student's education. Science is introduced at the Grundschule level as a part of a broader course, which also includes social studies. At the secondary level, all students must take chemistry, biology, physics, and mathematics; only the depth of presentation will vary according to school form. These courses are considered central to any student's education and necessary to prepare a student with life skills.
Students' lives at school revolve around academic activities, with few opportunities for social interaction. Homework is required by teachers at all school forms, although the amount of homework a student is expected to do depends to a large extent upon the school form they attend. In general, the more rigorous the school form, the more students are asked to do outside of school. Gymnasium students said that they spent approximately 2 hours a day on homework and were often required to study new material on their own. Hauptschule students said that they usually devoted less than an hour per day to homework and that the homework consisted entirely of worksheets reviewing material already presented in class. Most students said that they did not pursue supplementary instruction outside of school. However, Gymnasium and Realschule students occasionally hired tutors for particular subjects with which they have difficulty. The use of tutors was most frequent among Gymnasium students, who often hired upper-level Gymnasium students to tutor them.
For those students who do not attend Gymnasium, the system requires academic and vocational choices to be made in the early adolescent years. However, it also works to prepare the students for a profession. Teachers said that the motivation to achieve at school was strongest during the last few years of secondary school when students begin to explore career options. In fact, most teachers pointed to the connection between academic achievement and vocational opportunities as the driving force behind students' motivation for academic success at the Hauptschule, as well as for Realschule students who do not transfer to a Gymnasium to pursue the Abitur. In the case of Gymnasium students, who attend secondary school 2 to 3 years longer than Hauptschule or Realschule students, the last 2 years of school are focused on advanced-level courses and preparation for the Abitur examinations. Career decisions are delayed into late adolescence for Gymnasium students, although the majority of Gymnasium students take the Abitur to qualify for study at a university or professional level school.
Students have many interests outside of school, and peer relationships may develop from school affiliation or as a result of time spent engaging in sports or other neighborhood-based activities. Students said that in addition to "hanging out" with friends, playing sports at community clubs, going to a cafe, bar, or discotheque, they often spent time at home listening to music in their room or watching TV with their family. Alcohol and tobacco use was common among many young people. Recreational drug use, although far less common, was also found among some segments of the adolescent population, particularly older adolescents who frequent discotheques and follow the techno-music scene. Teachers and students reported that violence with weapons is almost unheard of within schools, but fistfights did occur at some of the secondary schools.
Only a small percentage of German students work part time while they are enrolled in the Gymnasium, Realschule, or Hauptschule. However, of the 60 to 70 percent of school-age adolescents who complete the Hauptschule or the Realschule following the 9th or 10th grade, most choose to continue their education in the Berufsschule. Through the Berufsschule they are introduced to the world of work, as its vocational programs combine part-time work with related studies. These organized apprenticeship programs generally last 2 to 3 years, during which time students receive compensation for their work.
To standardize apprenticeship programs, the federal government has developed and regularly updates training regulations for nearly 400 recognized trade and professional programs offered through vocational/technical training schools. In addition, achievement standards are enforced. Students must successfully complete their program and an exit examination before receiving a certificate. Most importantly however, the dual system of education and training is built on a successful partnership between schools, employers, trade unions, and state and federal governments. This partnership guarantees that students receive quality-controlled training that is relevant to a particular trade or profession and that the certificate they earn will be recognized throughout Germany.
Teachers' lives and working conditions also play an important part in the dynamics of any education system. As with other aspects of the German education system, a standardized structure contributes to the uniformity of teacher training requirements and teachers' workdays and to the overall uniformity of the education process across schools and states in Germany.
The KMK has established the minimum number of major subject, education, and educational psychology courses which university students must take in order to complete teacher training. After university graduation, student teachers take the First State Examination. This exam consists of the following: a written thesis in one of the student's two major subject areas or in general education; a written and oral examination in all of the student's major subjects, including general education; in some cases, a practical exam which may consist of performance evaluations for students concentrating in art, music, physical education, or in technical fields. After successfully passing the First State Examination, students spend 2 years working as a student teacher at an assigned school. Following this, they take the Second State Examination. Upon successful completion of the Second State Examination, they are eligible to apply for their first full-time teaching position.
Principals have the right to observe and evaluate a teacher's performance, but there is a great deal of variability in the frequency of performance evaluations. The results of evaluations are commonly used when considering teachers for promotions and are always required before the decision on tenure. However, most of the teachers we spoke with indicated that they were seldom observed or evaluated.
Teachers generally teach between 23 and 27 lessons of 45 minutes each per week. This breaks down to an average of approximately five class hours a day. This schedule provides little time for collegial interaction before school and during the two short breaks typically scheduled during the day; however, most teachers did not find this situation problematic. A majority of teachers did not report staying after school to work in their classroom or in the teachers' lounge, although the amount of teacher collaboration on curriculum often depended on the school. Grundschule teachers, placed the most emphasis on the need to work together on curriculum and standardization issues. Curriculum and other committee meetings on which teachers participated generally were not considered burdensome. Teachers lounges, which exist in most of the secondary schools, served as the teachers' resource center. However, all teachers reported doing their class preparation and grading at home following school hours.
The level of social status and respect accorded to German teachers varies with the type and location of the school at which they teach. Gymnasium teachers tend to be held in much higher esteem than other types of teachers. Realschule and Gesamtschule teachers had less status, and Grundschule and Hauptschule teachers had the lowest status. However, all teachers in Germany tend to be respected as trained professionals, and, except for the teachers in the former East German states, all teachers are civil servants. As civil servants, they enjoy job security and the same benefits as other government employees. In fact, many teachers said that job security was an important factor in their decision to become a teacher. In addition, teachers are paid comparatively well. Their salaries are established by a formula which is uniformly adhered to across all states, with the exception of the former East German states, where teachers are paid less than those in the former West German states.
Women comprise a large percentage of the Grundschule teachers, while men still comprise the largest percentage of teachers at Gymnasien. As a result, teachers said that it is also more common to find female principals at the Grundschule than at the lower secondary schools or the Gymnasium. One notable feature of all of the German school forms is that principals and assistant principals typically have dual roles. Although their teaching hours are reduced, principals and assistant principals are still active teachers.
Recent demographic changes, including an increasing number of foreign students whose first language is not German, have introduced an element of heterogeneity into Germany's schools. In addition, there has been an increase in the number of single parents and in the number of families in which both parents work. Teachers perceived that these factors have contributed to an increase in the number of students experiencing academic difficulties at school. As a result, teachers said that they have increasingly had to assume a central role in the socialization of students. Teachers noted that his was particularly true at the Grundschule and the lower secondary schools. Students who progressed to the Gymnasium often had more stable home situations and more parental support.
Germany's traditionally differentiated system of education still predominates in most states. However, German schools have attempted to remain in step with the social and technological changes of the past three decades. Many states have increased the academic options for students at the lower secondary level by instituting a 2-year orientation period known as the Förderstufe. The Förderstufe, although incorporated into existing school forms such as the Gesamtschule or the combined Hauptschule-Realschule, allows students to remain untracked, thereby delaying until the end of the sixth grade the decision as to which school form the student should attend at the lower secondary level. While most teachers and parents said that the highest achieving students should go directly to the Gymnasium following the fourth grade, they all agreed that the Förderstufe was important for "late bloomers" because it gave them the opportunity to eventually track into either the Gymnasium or the Realschule. The Gesamtschule also added flexibility to the education system. At the Gesamtschule major subjects are offered at several levels of difficulty, and students are assigned to the appropriate level based on their ability in each subject.
The majority of respondents spoke well of their country's highly tracked system of schooling. The consensus view was that the different school forms provide learning opportunities for children of varying degrees of intelligence, ability and aspirations. One Hauptschule parent made an effort to explain the logic of the German education system in the following way:
Not everyone can become a computer expert or a university professor. Not everyone is born to assume these types of positions, but every child should have the possibility to realize his or her potential, to live his or her own life.
Despite the overall satisfaction with the structure and function of the education system, a number of concerns and criticisms were voiced. Teachers, students, and parents were primarily critical of the effects of budget cuts in recent years, because they have reduced instructional hours and restricted the hiring of new teachers. Some were also critical of perceived differences in the quality of education between states and the increasing number of students enrolling in Gymnasien against their teacher's recommendation.
In sum, the German education system is directly influenced by a set of principles which come from social, cultural, and political realms in Germany. While the federal system in Germany protects the sovereignty of the states, it also provides guidance to the states through a federal commission formed of representatives of each of the states. This cooperation has led to a large degree of standardization in the structure of the education system, the development and implementation of similar curriculum standards among the states, and the development of teacher training and certification standards which are accepted across Germany. Secondly, both federal and state governments provide for a relatively equal distribution of resources for education across states, school forms, and communities. Thirdly, the German education system attempts to provide a supportive and egalitarian environment for all children at the Grundschule level. As children grow and their different levels of ability become apparent, these abilities are assessed and students of different levels of ability are provided with an education appropriate to their level of ability through a system which tracks them into separate school forms. And lastly, despite the tracking of students into separate school forms, all students receive instruction in math and science as an integral part of their curriculum through their final year of schooling.