A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

Chapter 5
Teachers and the Teaching Profession in Germany
(Part 4 of 4)

Teachers' Working Conditions

Teachers' Use of Time

School year. Officially, there are 39 weeks of school per year. However, after subtracting the holidays which vary from state to state, there are between 37 and 38 school weeks remaining (an average of 184 days). Teachers are paid throughout the entire year, including the vacation period of 12 weeks and holidays.

Teaching load. Grundschule teachers have the heaviest teaching load. They were quick to point out that their teaching load of 27 periods per week is too heavy considering that increasing enrollments have resulted in classroom sizes of 30 students in many schools. The teaching load varies slightly from state to state and also depends on the type of school. In schools in Central City, for example, teachers have the following weekly teaching obligations: Grundschulen, 27 periods; Hauptschulen and Realschulen, 26.5 periods; Gymnasien, Gesamtschulen and vocational schools, 23.5 periods. When they reach the age of 53, teachers are eligible for a reduction of their teaching load by 1 period per week, at the age of 55 by 2 periods a week, and at the age of 58 by 3 periods a week (Bergman & Ziemer 1993). Teachers who take on extra duties, such as advising students on careers and personal problems, serving as a conflict mediator between students and teachers, or serving as subject leader (informal department head), also receive a reduction in their teaching loads. In some cases, but by no means all, teachers who serve as mentors for student teachers may receive a reduction of 1 or 2 periods per week in their teaching load.

Currently, teachers at Grundschule and lower secondary schools visited in one of the new states work part time with a teaching load of 23 periods a week because of a lack of financial resources. On the other hand, at Gymnasien in this state, teachers are supposed to teach 24 periods a week but actually teach 27 periods, since there are not enough teachers available. Gymnasium teachers were eager to point out that they have a heavier teaching load and larger classes than their colleagues in the old states and are still paid much less for their efforts. In addition, teachers in this new state said that they do not get a reduction of their teaching load if they assume additional responsibilities, such as supervising the science lab.

Daily schedule. When asked to describe a typical working day, most teachers responded by saying that there is "no such thing as a typical working day." Every day is different because of a different teaching schedule. With this in mind, the following schedule from a beginning teacher at a Haupt/Realschule shows the typical demands of a teacher's work day:

Twice a week I have to be at school at 7:45 a.m. That is very hard for me because I have to drop off my four-year old daughter at kindergarten. I have a big breakfast in the morning because there is not enough time to eat during the two breaks from 9:20 till 9:35 and from 11:10 till 11:25. I usually have a list of things I need to take care of during those breaks. I noticed that I feel more stressed during the breaks. I talk much faster because I do not have enough time. At 1:00, I am done with teaching. Afterwards, I photocopy a few things for the next day. At 1:30, I get into my car completely exhausted. I'm not able to think any longer. I get home, eat something, and play with my daughter. I need time to relax. Around 7:30 p.m., I start preparing class for the next day. At 10:00 p.m., I am done with preparation, read for an hour, and then go to bed.

The schedule of a math and physics teacher at a Gesamtschule demonstrates the variability of teacher's daily schedules (figure 1). This teacher instructs students in the 7th through 10th grades. In addition to regular subjects, this teacher also sponsors project work with ninth-grade students on Thursday afternoons.

Figure 1 — Sample weekly teaching schedule of a math and physics teacher at a Gesamtschule

NOTE: This teacher receives a reduction in teaching load because of his duties as lab supervisor and as "subject leader" or informal department head. Courses in math and physics are differentiated according to ability level. For example, 9a math refers to a Grundkurs (basic-level) math class. Accordingly, 9b refers to an Erweiterungskurs (intermediate and advanced-level class).

A math and physics teacher at a Gymnasium does not teach additional subjects such as astronomy or projects, in contrast to his colleague at the Gesamtschule. Figure 2 shows the weekly schedule for a Gymnasium teacher who instructs students in the middle grades: two seventh-grade math classes, one eighth-grade math and physics class, and one ninth-grade math class. In addition, he instructs one 11th-grade math class. This teacher teaches a total of 21 periods a week, a reduced teaching load because he is over 53 years of age and because he teaches an upper-level class.

Figure 2 — Sample weekly teaching schedule of a math and physics teacher at a Gymnasium

NOTE: This teacher receives a reduction in teaching load because of his age (over 53) and because he teaches an upper-level course.

Although there is no typical work day according to most teachers interviewed, similarities do exist. Teachers start during either first or second periods (first period starts between 7:30 and 8:00 a.m.), and most teachers leave school around noon or 1:00 p.m., except for those Gymnasium teachers who also teach upper-level classes on certain afternoons. School principals are the latest to leave school, usually at around 4:00 p.m.

Breaks and free periods during the school day. During the school day, there are several breaks of 15 to 20 minutes. Teachers use these breaks as opportunities to talk with colleagues, make photocopies, or drink a cup of coffee. One or more teachers are assigned to monitor the students in the school yard during the breaks on a rotating schedule.

Teachers usually have lunch at home, since the large majority of schools do not have a cafeteria. However, Gymnasium and Gesamtschule teachers might leave school to eat lunch and then return in the afternoon to teach or supervise projects. During free periods teachers are not required to stay at school. They can choose to spend this time taking care of errands outside of school, preparing class, or talking to colleagues. Most teachers said they do school-related work at home. Except for the Gesamtschule, the schools visited do not provide offices or teachers' rooms equipped with individual desks, so teachers have to carry their books back and forth between home and school.

Time for lesson preparation and conferences. In general, teachers said they spend up to 2 hours preparing lessons every day, though experienced teachers may spend considerably less. However, they also stressed that time for preparation varies and could be more than 2 hours, depending on the tasks at hand, that is, whether or not they have to make up a test. Most teachers said that they work 1 day on the weekend to correct and grade students' exams. In addition to teaching and preparation, teachers are required to participate in meetings several times a month: normally this includes a meeting of teachers of a particular subject (Fachkonferenz) and a general meeting (Schulkonferenz) for all teachers, the principal, and assistant principal.

Beginning teachers often reported spending the most time at home preparing for school. For example, an art and German teacher in her first year at a Haupt/Realschule said she spends about 2.5 hours every evening preparing her classes for the following day. In contrast, teachers with more years of experience do not generally spend as much time preparing lessons. For example, a math and social studies teacher from another Haupt/ Realschule said that after 15 years of teaching, he does not need to spend time at home preparing class for the next day.

Gymnasium teachers, especially of upper-level courses, emphasized the variability of their schedule because of the amount of time it takes to prepare exams and correct homework for upper-level classes. A teacher who has been teaching for 18 years at a Gymnasium described the investment of time required:

Depending on the task, for example, whether I have to make up a math test or teach algebra problems, I may need up to 5 hours in the afternoon to prepare. It all depends on what needs to be done. Actually, I prepare lesson units at the beginning of the week. When I am done with a unit for my eighth-graders, for example, I start with the units for different classes. I never just prepare one class at a time. I don't think it makes sense to do that.

Teacher Interaction

The teachers' lounge. Teachers share a common room for times before and after school and during the two major breaks during the school day. Often, teachers have a particular place at which they sit and leave their books, worksheets, and the class book. In some cases, there is more than one room designated as a teachers' lounge, depending on the size of the school and whether or not there is a separate smokers' lounge. For example, at one Gesamtschule, teachers have, in addition to a common lounge, several departmental lounges with additional work space. Math and science teachers from this school said that they prefer using the departmental lounge to the common teachers' lounge, which they said was too small and crowded during breaks. Teachers said they have a tendency to break up into smaller groups anyway, and thus prefer the smaller, departmental lounges. However, the disadvantages of separate departmental lounges are apparent for teachers who teach two unrelated subjects, such as biology and English. These teachers are constantly on the move from one department to the next, and often stated a preference for a single teachers' lounge.

During the two major breaks, teachers' lounges are lively and hectic, since teachers come in and out regularly on their way between classes and errands. One Gymnasium teacher described the lounges aptly: "Teachers' lounges are usually like waiting rooms in a train station, and very noisy." It was extremely uncommon to see students in the teachers' lounge.

At Gymnasien, the teachers' lounge was also the place where I met teachers to schedule appointments for interviews, and during these discussions in the teachers' lounges I was often confronted with skeptical questions about our methodology or research instruments. In fact, one teacher, who introduced herself as a historian rather than a history teacher, was visibly upset at the principal for not informing her previously about the purpose of this study. I sensed that this teacher also resented the intrusion of "outsiders" into what she considered to be a private area.

The Haupt/Realschulen as well as the Gymnasien visited provided a telephone but no copy machine in the common room; copy machines were often located in a separate room. At the Gymnasium, there were few magazines and books in the teachers' lounge; at the Haupt/Realschulen, teachers usually go to a teachers' library for books or magazines. In contrast, all of the Grundschule lounges were equipped with a copy machine, telephone, and teaching magazines. In the schools visited, none of the teachers' lounges was equipped with computers or fax machines.

Interestingly, the way in which the teachers' lounge was arranged and decorated often mirrored teachers' degrees of interaction and cooperation in each school. For example, one Grundschule lounge had an old wooden desk in the teachers' room reserved for a correspondence book in which teachers wrote comments they wished to share with other teachers. Comments often concerned the behavior or performance of a student or students, but also included descriptions of something which teachers experienced outside of school. The bulletin boards in this lounge posted continuing education programs offered as well as the school agenda for the coming months. At this school, teachers also stayed in school in the afternoon to exchange lesson plans and to just sit down to chat with other teachers.

In contrast, in many other schools, the teachers' lounges did not invite one to linger and socialize. Gloomy rooms were furnished with standard school desks and chairs from the 1970's, which were pulled apart, encouraging isolation rather than conversation. At one Gymnasium, in addition to continuing education offerings, the bulletin board posted a running list of teachers' complaints about "a lack of good manners in the classroom," "thefts in the school building," and other issues.

In most teachers' lounges, teachers sat in groups. However, some teachers simply walked into the teachers' lounge without greeting anybody, took some books out of their lockers, filled a cup of coffee, and left again. Others began to sigh as soon as they set foot into the lounge—complaining about their students and how poorly they behaved or did on a test. In fact, some respondents complained about their complaining colleagues:

There are colleagues who just complain about their students during the breaks in the teacher's lounge. It's obvious that those teachers are of the opinion that students are bad and just out there to annoy their teachers. One has to imagine that there are teachers who think that their fifth-graders are mean to them because they are still lively. (combined Haupt/Realschule teacher)

Cooperation among teachers. Breaks only 15–20 minutes long allow little time for cooperation among teachers in exchanging lesson plans, examinations, and ideas. Even so, cooperation among teachers varied widely from school to school. In many teachers' lounges, teacher cooperation consisted of terse interactions describing what section they were currently teaching from the math textbook or asking whether the other teacher already made up the next math examination. Teachers appeared to have an overriding concern for making sure they followed the curriculum and stayed on schedule. However, most did not discuss methodology or the media they used to convey particular topics. It seemed that many teachers chose to work alone, because they feared that sharing their teaching techniques and teaching style might provide other teachers with opportunities to attack and criticize them. For that reason, teachers also hesitated to observe each other's class instruction. A Gymnasium teacher made this attitude explicit:

I do not mind having visitors in my class, but colleagues should not evaluate me personally or my teaching style. I do not want to open myself to other teachers, because they could use my openness to talk about me in a bad way.

According to math and science teachers at a Gymnasium, it is normal for teachers to work on their own. One said: "I usually do not exchange lesson plans with other teachers. We scientists are individualists." This is not the case at every Gymnasium visited. At one Gymnasium, a math and physics teacher said that a newly implemented teaching plan required cooperation between teachers of different subjects to develop interdisciplinary lesson plans.

Cooperation among teachers also depended on the age and personalities of the teaching staff in a particular school. At one Grundschule, the mostly young and engaged teachers placed heavy emphasis on cooperation and exchange. Correspondingly, the principal scheduled one afternoon a week for all teachers to get together and to talk about projects, lesson units, and students. In contrast, at another Grundschule there was a general lack of cooperation among teachers, the majority of whom had been teaching for 15 years or more. Some said that they would like to spend more time in the afternoon working cooperatively to plan projects and lesson units, but that many of their colleagues left school at noon. Despite their expressed desire for greater interaction, I observed these teachers leaving school as soon as they finished teaching their last class for the day.

Schools in which teachers worked closely together exchanging worksheets and ideas were often located in neighborhoods with a high percentage of refugee and immigrant children. Teachers at these school said that they have to cooperate with colleagues, because they need their support in order to cope with problems in school. They stressed that dealing with common problems fosters teamwork among teachers. Whereas at other schools teachers reported intrigues among colleagues, teachers at schools with a high foreign student population said that, in general, they have more important things to do and have neither the time nor the energy for such intrigues.

In contrast to teachers in the old states, teachers at all schools visited in East City stressed that they work together closely and exchange ideas. This is because teachers are still in the process of learning how to cope with the new school system introduced only a few years ago. Since teachers from former East Germany were forced to reapply for teaching positions after unification, often being sent to different schools as a result, many teachers are still getting to know their colleagues at the new school.

Overall, cooperation among teachers seems to be largely limited to exchanging ideas for tests and examinations and to general discussions about their progress in following the curriculum. This exchange usually takes place during breaks of a few minutes in the hectic environment of the teachers' lounge. Most teachers said they prefer working alone and sticking to their routine at school. The only exceptions to this were seen in schools faced with major changes or difficulties, such as high nonnative German speakers in class or adjusting to a new school system.

School and Classroom Organization

Schools generally have only a small number of administrative personnel. All principals are former teachers who still teach as much as their schedule allows. In addition to one or two secretaries and a janitor (who does not clean but takes care of building maintenance), in most schools several teachers take on additional responsibilities, such as supervising the library or science lab. These teachers receive a reduction in their teaching load in return. Moreover, schools do not generally have a nurse on staff; students who are ill are sent home or, in the worst case, they are sent immediately to a doctor or hospital. Usually, the secretary's office, the principal's office and the teachers' lounge comprise a unit — the principal frequently going in and out of all three rooms.

The class teacher. Most teachers for grades 1 through 10 at all but the vocational schools are assigned a "class" at the beginning of the school year. With the course system beginning in 11th grade at the Gymnasium, students no longer belong to one class and thus do not have a class teacher.

A class teacher not only teaches one or more subjects to a particular group of students, but is also responsible for handling administrative issues raised by the students in the class and their parents. In addition, class teachers are responsible for writing grade reports for their classes twice a year. They also supervise the election of a student representative for the class and arrange time at the beginning of and during the school year to meet with their students' parents.

At the Gesamtschule, teachers believe that students should remain together as a class as much as possible during their first 2 years in order to provide a supportive, noncompetitive environment and to facilitate the development of friendships. In one of the schools visited, the class teachers for all fifth-grade classes have an office located near the fifth-grade classrooms. In turn, the fifth-grade classrooms are situated in the same hallway around a common area where the recent projects and artwork from fifth-graders is exhibited. In this way, class teachers of the same grade level are able to work closely together.

Class teachers teach as many subjects as possible in one classroom so that students have one teacher who knows them well rather than many teachers. According to teachers, another advantage of having one classroom as a home base is that students do not have to wander from room to room but have teachers who come to them. They reported that they generally enjoy being class teachers, because they know the students in their class and have fewer discipline problems as a result.

The class book. The class teacher is also responsible for the "class book" in which teachers write their daily lesson objectives, topics covered, and homework assigned. The class book is always present in the home classroom, except when the whole class changes classrooms, for example, when they go to chemistry lab or gym. At the beginning of each semester one student from the class is elected to be the "holder of the class book," and is then responsible for carrying the class book between classrooms.

The class book is used in every type of school. It serves as a master document, containing a brief description of what has been taught and assigned as schoolwork and homework for a particular class each day, and often includes page numbers from the textbook used and homework assignments given. The class teacher and school principal are required to examine the entries and sign the class book at the end of each week. In addition to entries describing lessons, the class book contains the course and room schedule for students in the home class, a list of teachers and the subjects they teach for that class, students' home addresses and telephone numbers, an absentee list, and the names of the elected student and parent speakers for the class. Figure 3, illustrates a typical class book.

Substitute teaching. When a teacher is absent, the assistant principal or principal creates a substitute plan. Teachers and student teachers are asked to teach class for their absent colleague. There are no extra "substitute" teachers. Absent teachers are not required to leave prepared lesson plans for teachers who cover class for them. Rather, a teacher who is scheduled to substitute for another teacher usually checks the class book to inform him or herself on the class' progress. If the substitute teacher is not familiar with the subject to be covered, he or she may simply have students do their homework during class. In some cases, teachers carry books or games for those occasions when they must substitute. While illness is the most frequent reason for teacher absence, teachers may also miss school, with the principal's permission, to attend continuing education programs.

Figure 3 — Sample entry in a class book during the third week of the school year from a combined Haupt/Realschule

At secondary schools, teachers who have a free period are the first to be chosen as substitutes during that period. If no teachers are available during the period when a substitute is needed, classes may simply be canceled, especially during the first or last period of the day. Students are then asked to come to school later or to leave earlier on that day. According to a recent German newspaper article, 4 percent of class periods in Central State are canceled due to teacher absence ("Hessens Lehrer sollen mehr arbeiten" 1994).

At Grundschulen, if a teacher is sick, the principal develops a substitute plan, which may affect all classes in the school. Since Grundschule teachers usually teach all subjects for one class, it is often more difficult to find a substitute to cover for an absent teacher. If a teacher is sick for an entire week, the principal may decide to split the class and send students into other classrooms. In other cases, the principal may change the weekly schedule by canceling certain classes so that a few teachers can take over the duties of the absent teacher. If a teacher is absent for an extended period of time, the principal may call the local school office and ask for an additional teacher.

Teachers at a Gesamtschule were surprised to hear that there are special substitute teachers in U.S. schools. According to these teachers, in the past there was a similar system of substitute teachers in Central State. They referred to it, jokingly, as the "firefighter system." Teachers emphasized that it does not make sense to have an outsider come to school and substitute for an absent teacher. However, they also criticized the current system in which any available teacher may be required to substitute in any class or subject. Teachers explained that substitute teaching is effective only if teachers are able to substitute in subjects and at grade levels, which they normally teach. Only when this is the case can substitute teachers be expected to be well prepared and to know at least some of the students they are teaching.

Grading. Teachers maintain a grade book separate from the class book in which they record when and how they assess students' work. In general, teachers give grades for tests, quizzes (especially for languages), class participation, and extra activities, such as oral presentations. Homework is usually not graded.

Teachers do not write formal grade reports for students during the first 2 years of Grundschule. However, they do keep records of students' performance on quizzes and tests, which are then used to prepare reports assessing the strengths and weaknesses of each student. In East State, the grades from only two fourth-grade subjects count for admission to the Gymnasium: math and German. Many Grundschule teachers said they dread making secondary school recommendations for their fourth-grade students. Teachers in East City often said they think that fourth grade is too early to make such an important decision. In contrast, most Grundschule teachers in the old states believe that an experienced teacher should be able to determine whether a child should attend Gymnasium or another type of secondary school by second grade, saying that some children write more quickly or are able to understand a math problem right away and others cannot.

Teachers at secondary schools, especially at the Gymnasium, also said that grading is often difficult. This is the case not just because secondary school students are apt to challenge their grades, but also because of the kind of dilemmas described by a teacher at a Berufliches Gymnasium:

Sometimes I have students whom I cannot pass on to the next grade level. However, it is very difficult to make this decision, especially if I know that this student has already repeated this grade and is threatened with being kicked out of his home.

Another Gymnasium teacher who primarily teaches upper-level courses, talked about the severe and negative impact that grading has on teacher-student relationships. He said that at the beginning of the school year, students and teachers usually get along very well. The relationship normally develops nicely until mid-January, when the teacher is required to give students their first major examinations and grades. The relationship suffers at that time because teachers have to evaluate students, and students know how important these evaluations are for their future careers, at least in the upper grades. This teacher said that a grade of 2.1 (B) as opposed to 1.9 (B+) can sometimes mean the difference between getting into a desired university program or not. Instead of being the coach, the teacher thus becomes the enemy, an obstacle to be overcome on the way to a good Abitur grade.

Methods of Teaching Math

A variety of teaching methods were utilized in the math classes observed, including lecturing, interactive discussions, teacher questioning, and pair or group work. No classes were solely lectures, and the majority of classes involved sequenced interactions between teachers and students, one student at a time, as well as paired discussions among students. Students spoke frequently in class and often went to the board to demonstrate work.

Lesson structure. A common pattern in the classes observed was for the teacher to ask questions that would stimulate student thinking and perhaps tap prior knowledge about the topic to be presented, then to pose problems and solicit student responses. Teachers might ask for volunteers to come to the board to work a problem or might call on a particular student. During nearly all the classes observed there were periods when students were talking with their neighbors and working on problems together. Although teachers talked during interviews about their use of group work in math classes, most such activities observed were relatively informal and unstructured. One teacher noted that "I think the discussions I allow can be considered as group work, because every student contributes something to the solution of a math problem."

Classes were typically fast paced and covered a good deal of material. For example, a fourth-grade math class began with students working on problems posted on the board prior to their arrival. As they finished, individuals were expected to move on to a word-problem task. Then students compared their findings and the teacher solicited and posted the answers. Following this, she made announcements that tomorrow they would move on to division and that students having difficulty with word problems should attend the remedial session being offered.

The teacher then helped the class work through the steps in solving a word problem. She asked students to open their math books and to read a word problem independently. She next read the problem aloud and asked students to identify the important information, to underline it, and then to write the underlined facts in their workbook. On the board she repeated the key details of the problem and framed the question:

Given:

adults pay 6 DM
children pay 3 DM
720 tickets for adults
450 tickets for children

Find:

How much money did they collect?

Students were asked to work with a neighbor to solve the problem. While students discussed, calculated, and compared the results, the teacher walked around and assisted those with questions. She then selected a student to write the solution on the board. The student displayed her numerical solution, and then another student was selected to "think of an answer sentence" and responded "The class collects 5,670 DM." The teacher followed this by distributing a number crossword puzzle. She had one student give a brief explanation of such puzzles and then selected two students to demonstrate the puzzles. The puzzle was assigned as homework.

In most classrooms there was considerable emphasis on the production of right answers, and the treatment of students who erred depended on the classroom climate the teacher had created. One teacher in an 11th-grade math class at a vocational school, for example, solicited student responses, listened to students' answers, corrected misunderstandings, and encouraged students through an increasingly difficult series of problems. Participation was highest in this type of class.

In a few secondary classes observed, however, students who gave wrong answers were sometimes jeered by classmates. One teacher was observed mocking student responses and exhibiting frustration at incorrect answers. For example, in an eighth-grade math class at a combined Haupt/Realschule the teacher wrote the function 'y=3x' on the board and asked students how they would draw it. Since no one volunteered, the teacher picked a student. Although this student protested that he could not draw the function, the teacher asked him to come to the board. When the student made a mistake she sighed and said, "Did I do this for nothing? If you still have problems with drawing this kind of function, practice at home. I will not demonstrate it again." When the teacher sought student participation later in the class, no one volunteered.

Public recognition of success and failure was common in the classes observed. In one class, a teacher posted the answer to a problem and then asked for a show of hands to determine who had gotten it right and who had gotten it wrong. Speed was also highly valued and publicly displayed. In one eighth-grade Gymnasium class, for example, students who finished early were asked to write their names on the board.

Use of examples. Classroom observations provided considerable evidence of the application of mathematics to "real" situations and the use of concrete examples to illustrate key concepts. In an eighth-grade math class, students computed the portions of a taxi fare in order to understand proportional functions. In a 13th-grade math class at a Gymnasium, students were learning integral calculus by calculating the volume of a champagne glass. In a technical math class at a vocational school, a teacher explained how calculating the force of a parallelogram was related to the students' jobs as autobody builders.

Homework. Although teachers typically assign homework, it appeared that these assignments are not formally reviewed by the teachers, but are often quickly checked at the start of class. A teacher at a Gesamtschule mentioned that she assigned little homework, because she disliked spending class time reviewing it, but that she told students to study what they did in class at home. The primary purpose of homework in mathematics seemed to be to review and practice problems of the type performed in class. Most classes observed seemed to include some minimal acknowledgment of the previous homework, perhaps a working of a homework problem on the board. Classes often concluded with the assignment of homework.

Perceptions of student abilities. Teachers openly distinguished between "good" and "bad" students, in interviews, in the classroom, and even when introducing students to the interviewer. An eighth-grade Gymnasium teacher began by asking, "Here are two good and two bad students. Who do you want to talk to?" During instruction, teachers referred to particular problems as those "for smart students." A female math and physics Gymnasium teacher noted that she typically called upon "a good student, because there is not enough time and I also want to encourage the good students and use them as role models." She found it useful occasionally to call on students "who I know will make a typical mistake. With the help of that particular student, I can thus make students aware of common mistakes." In using group work, she reported:

[I put] good and bad students in separate groups because good students need to tackle difficult problems, whereas bad students need to feel that they can also accomplish a given task. If there are a lot of students who do not understand what is going on, however, I group one good student with four bad students together, so that the good student can explain math problems and thus help to close gaps.

This dichotomous thinking about student abilities was reflected in statements such as "either a student is able to think logically or has difficulties doing so." Good students in math were defined as those who understood the conceptual basis of the material, grasped ideas quickly, finished worksheets rapidly, and got correct answers when solving problems for the class. Several teachers spoke of these traits as heritable. For example, an 11th-grade Gymnasium teacher described students who did not do well in class as "students who do not have the genetic disposition for being good students. They are unable to follow in class. . . . They are not able to make the connections that talented or good students are able to draw." In order to accommodate "good" students who are able to work more quickly, some teachers provide additional problems during class to those who complete the assigned class problems before others.

Teacher-Student Interactions

At the schools visited, the quality of teacher and student interaction varied from very formal to informal. Despite the variability of interaction, some generalizations can be made about teacher and student relationships. Teachers of upper-level classes, for example, address their students from 11th grade through 13th grade by first name and use the formal address (Sie). This use of the formal "you" in German language and culture connotes a relationship of mutual respect and also formality.

The relationship between teacher and students also differs from class to class and with grade level, as the following comment by a beginning teacher at the Haupt/Realschule shows:

The relationship I have with my kids in sixth grade is a lot different from that with ninth-graders. As you might have noticed today, I try to speak in a strict tone to my fifth- and sixth-graders and also look at them in a certain way if I disapprove of something. I think that it is important to be strict in the beginning so that students respect one and one's rules. In eighth or ninth grade, the relationship changes. Students would laugh if I would talk to them in the same strict tone I use in my sixth-grade class. I think that I treat older students more like equals.

Differences in teaching style may also influence the quality of teacher-student interactions. Haupt/Realschule teachers were observed to use more partner and group work and to explain concepts using concrete examples. One teacher at the Realschule, for example, used his phone bills to introduce equations with the variable x. Students in his class worked in groups to calculate phone bills and appeared to have a warm, friendly relationship with the teacher.

Teachers who convey the lessons in an interesting and clear way very often have a good relationship with their students. This is the case even when their teaching style is teacher centered. For example, one Haupt/Realschule teacher taught the Pythagorean theorem step by step but also explained the logic behind it and conveyed enthusiasm to her 10th grade students. She summarized the lesson at the end of the period with the help of students. When a student got an answer wrong, he or she was not penalized by the teacher or teased by other students but was asked again to explain the logic behind the answer. The teacher talked clearly and took her time to answer students' questions in a friendly way.

Several Haupt/Realschule teachers also mentioned that a teacher's age plays a role in determining the teacher-student relationship. One teacher stressed the need for young teachers since they usually have better rapport with students. According to this teacher, who was in her mid-forties, young teachers have more understanding of and tolerance for students' interests.

A social science teacher at a vocational school suggested that the subject a teacher instructs also plays a role in determining the teacher-student relationship. According to this teacher, teachers of nonvocational subjects at the vocational school have an especially difficult time gaining students' interest and respect. For example, a teacher of theoretical mathematics often finds it difficult to relate to students, because they are usually not interested in the subject. In contrast, most vocational school students are interested in job-related subjects and thus show enthusiasm in these classes, which in turn has a positive effect on the teacher-student relationship.

For the most part, observations at Grundschulen revealed a warm and friendly relationship between teachers and students. Grundschule students spend most of their school day with one class teacher and thus have many opportunities to develop a close relationship. Nevertheless, teachers pointed out that it is extremely difficult to meet all children's needs during the class period. Often, there are 30 students in the classroom, many of whom are of different ethnic groups whose native language is not German.

Teachers in the secondary school classes observed were more likely to be preoccupied with disciplinary issues and complained of those students who "disturb class and make it impossible to teach." Throughout the interviews, teachers complained of such difficulties with a small set of students and their frustration in coping with these disturbances. In math classes where pair or group work is going on, the noise level was often high, and teachers had varying degrees of success in regaining student attention. In one vocational school math class, students in the back of the room read the newspaper throughout the class, although the teacher gave disparaging looks. He later commented that he permitted such behavior in his class because otherwise "unmotivated students would disrupt class by talking."

Parent-Teacher Relations

Parents have several opportunities to meet their child's teacher(s) throughout the year. The frequency and purpose of parent-teacher meetings varies considerably, according to the particular state, school, and individual teachers.

Parent nights (Elternabende). The class teacher and parents meet during an evening at the beginning of the school year. At the "parent night" the class teacher introduces himself or herself and presents curricular objectives for the school year. Also, the parents elect a representative to the parent council. If a parent becomes dissatisfied with the way a particular subject or topic is being taught, he or she may call on the representative to the parent council and ask him or her to arrange a parent-teacher meeting.

Parent-teacher days (Elternsprechtage). In addition to parent nights, parent-teacher meetings are arranged twice during the school year (usually in January and June or July). Parents make appointments to talk to their child's teacher(s) about their school performance. If a parent cannot make it to the scheduled appointment, he or she can meet the teacher during their office hours, which are held once a week after school. Some teachers complained about parents who ask them to return to school in the afternoon rather than coming to their scheduled appointment.

Parental involvement at the Grundschule. For parents of third- and fourth-graders, additional meetings are scheduled to inform them about secondary school options. There are also opportunities for teachers to meet parents informally, on an unofficial level. For example, at one Grundschule, mothers were observed picking up their children after school and using this time to talk with teachers informally. According to most teachers, parents of Grundschule students are, with few exceptions, very much involved in their children's education. Some parents who are professionals feel they know the subject matter in Grundschule better than the teachers know it and criticize teachers accordingly.

Teachers at one Grundschule in East City visit all of their students at home once during the school year to see the social environment in which the children live. Teachers said that these visits are crucial for understanding students' performance and behavior in school. In addition to the other meetings, additional individual meetings with parents are usually arranged when students do not do well in school, have problems with classmates, or lack social skills.

Parental involvement at secondary school. In contrast to parents of Grundschule students, parents of secondary school students do not interact as often with their child's teachers. Teachers at secondary schools said that, with the exception of the few parent nights, parents normally do not visit school during the school year. Many parents do not even participate in these few parent nights. A Haupt/Realschule teacher stressed that she does not receive much cooperation from parents. She said that when she succeeds in arranging a time to meet parents, rather than discussing issues openly, parents often try to invent a picture of a cohesive family which does not exist in reality.

With the exception of the class teacher, whose responsibility it is to arrange parent-teacher meetings, Gymnasium teachers do not generally meet the parents of their students, unless there is a problem. Based on interviews with teachers at vocational schools, it appears that there is even less contact between parents and teachers of vocational school students than occurs at Gymnasium. Vocational school teachers said that they often only call parents if students have been absent for an extended period or if they are not doing well in school.

Dealing with Problems

Teachers spoke of a number of problems that they face in the classroom, what they consider to be drains on their energy as teachers, and talked about where they can turn for assistance.

Difficult students. Teachers often laughed when asked to whom they turn if there are problems in class. A typical reaction was: "We have to deal with problems ourselves. Who else?" In general, teachers attempt to deal with disruptive behavior in class on their own. However, if a subject teacher cannot resolve a conflict alone, she or he will inform the classroom teacher about the problem. Together, they decide on appropriate measures to be taken.

If the behavior of a student who has problems does not change, the classroom teacher is asked to contact the school principal. An assistant principal at a Gymnasium commented that teachers "do not come early enough" for such assistance, although he acknowledged that the process of referral is lengthy, since classroom teachers are expected to observe a student carefully for eight weeks before complaining to the principal. In consultation with the teachers involved, the principal might decide to move the student to a different class. If this does not help, conferences with all teachers of that grade level are arranged, possibly followed by a school conference. In the meantime, teachers attempt to communicate with the parents of the student with problems. In rare instances, and usually only if a student is involved with drugs or causes serious harm to others, a student might be sent to a different school. Teachers expressed some frustration with the lengthy process necessary to change disruptive student behavior. One commented that "There are not enough measures of consequence enough to counter (disruption) in class. We only contact the office if there are severe disturbances."

Counseling teachers. In some states there are special teachers who serve as counselors for students and parents at school. The number of counseling teachers depends on the school size. For example, a Gymnasium with approximately 1,250 students in East City had 3 counseling teachers, each specializing in a particular area, such as drug prevention or career planning. Counseling teachers receive a reduction in their teaching load and have their own offices in which they are available to students and parents for four periods during the school week. Because the time spent making phone calls to the youth office and psychologists are included in these four periods, not much time remains for counseling students.

Students often do not make full use of the counseling services. A counseling teacher at a combined Haupt/Realschule said that very few students visit during her office hours. When students do come by, they usually discuss problems with classmates, parents or teachers, and ask for advice. The counselor also tries to ascertain whether a student's problems are serious enough to warrant a call to the school psychologist at the regional school office for additional help. Although parents are also welcome to come to counseling hours, counseling teachers reported that parents hardly ever make use of this offer.

In schools in Central City, counseling teachers were introduced in many schools as part of a special statewide program to combat student drug use. This program has been in place for more than a decade. However, a counseling teacher at a vocational school said that most students come to see him for counseling on personal problems, and only about 5 percent of students see him because of drug problems. This counselor said he sees between 90 and 100 students during the school year and that he spends as much as an hour and a half a week for up to 6 months with many of these students. This teacher added: "I am not just here for students; I also counsel teachers as well as school administrators if they are having some sort of conflict or problem."

Energy drains for teachers. Most secondary and many Grundschule teachers said that they found it difficult to deal with students. Grundschule teachers pointed out that children have changed in recent years and that it takes a lot of effort to gain insights into the children, to know what motivates them, and to decide on how they can best react to their students' behavior. According to many Grundschule teachers, it is exhausting to teach 27 periods per week to classes of 30 children. There are always some children who have problems and compensate by being the class clown or bully. Teachers said that they feel bad spending so much of their time and energy helping or disciplining those few students and thus neglecting others. Noise in the classroom was often mentioned as a cause of frustration and headaches. To relax students and help them concentrate, some teachers were observed to use meditation music and yoga exercises in class, especially in Grundschule.

Discipline is a problem of special concern for teachers who are not class teachers and therefore must change classrooms every 45 minutes. At one Haupt/Realschule, teachers spent a great deal of time simply asking students to pay attention and to be quiet. Teachers cannot resolve conflicts readily because there is not enough time between periods in which to talk with students about their problems. As a consequence, many said they often leave school feeling frustrated and dissatisfied because they could not solve a problem.

In comparison with other secondary school teachers, Gymnasium teachers were less likely to complain about conflicts with students. Rather, they were more often annoyed by changes in the curriculum at the Gymnasium:

I think that the curriculum is getting worse. This really annoys me. The Gymnasium is losing its high academic standard. It seems that the approach is to introduce a mediocre standard for all students instead of really promoting the intelligent students. This is politics. For example, there is a low standard for math until 10th grade. Only in the upper grades is there a higher standard. This is the trend. (Gymnasium teacher)

Teachers resort to various means to deal with job-related tension and stress. Organizations such as the state-run Institute of Continuing Education for Teachers offer courses on relaxation techniques, classroom management, and conflict resolution.

Limits to effectiveness. Teacher effectiveness is perceived to be limited by several factors. As mentioned previously, classroom disruptions and student behavior problems are a concern of many. Although teachers seem accustomed to working independently, some expressed a sense that their work would be enhanced by increased interaction with other teachers. A few teachers expressed concern about the fact that, as civil servants, teachers have job security for their entire career. An Grundschule teacher who raised this as a problematic issue for the profession said that "there is no evaluation of whether someone does a good job as a teacher or whether they should find another career. I think that this is harmful, not only for that particular teacher, but also for the students." However, the majority of teachers did not see job security as limiting teacher effectiveness.

Two other issues teachers addressed critically were teacher-parent relationships and the division of the day into 45-minute periods.

I do not like the formality and distance between teachers and parents. There is a separation between school and home, which does not make sense. I think that both sides, parents and teachers, encourage this separation. Teachers are viewed as authorities who are superior. (Grundschule teacher)

I think it is important to have 45-minute periods no longer. By the time you finish taking absentees, talking about homework, etc., the bell is almost about to ring. It is also difficult for kids to change their mind from chemistry to English. I think that we should allow two periods for each subject. (Gesamtschule teacher)

Summary

The following issues concerning teachers and the teaching profession in Germany are of particular relevance for discussions of education policy in the United States.

Teachers have a varied schedule, teaching different subjects at different times during the week. Grundschule teachers generally teach one class full time for at least 2 years. A first-grade teacher will teach the same class in second grade before moving to a different class in third and fourth grades. In this way, Grundschule teachers are able to build close relationships with their students.

Secondary school teachers teach at least two major subjects, usually to students at different grade levels. They generally have few free periods during the school day. Since many schools lack extensive computer facilities and office space for teachers, most teachers prepare their lessons and correct examinations at home. During free periods, teachers are not required to remain at school and may choose to use this time to conduct errands or socialize with colleagues.

Teachers instruct between 23 and 27 lessons of 45 minutes each per week (up to 28 in some states). It is a compact and hectic day. Grundschule teachers have the heaviest teaching load and emphasized that teaching 27 periods per week in classes of up to 30 students can be extremely stressful. Most Grundschule teachers leave school between 12:00 and 1:00 p.m. The majority of secondary school teachers also leave school by 1:00 p.m., with the exception of Gymnasium teachers who teach upper-level courses. Principals generally remain in school until 4:00 p.m. or later.

Students in grades 1 through 10 at both Grundschule and secondary schools are divided into "classes" of between 25 and 30 students each. Generally, these classes remain intact from year to year. One teacher, assigned as "class teacher" for each class, not only handles administrative tasks for the class and arranges parent-teacher meetings, but also teaches several subjects. Teachers stressed that the "class" system fosters a sense of camaraderie and belonging among the students in a class, and also serves to minimize discipline problems, since the class teacher knows all of the students well. The class teacher is also responsible for the "class book" in which teachers write the objectives of daily lessons, the topics covered, and the homework assigned. The class book is thus a master document describing what has been taught and assigned to each class.

There are no extra "substitute" teachers. Teachers and student teachers are asked to substitute for absent colleagues. The assistant principal or principal creates a substitute teaching schedule whenever a teacher is sick. A teacher who is scheduled to substitute usually checks the class book to gain information about the class' progress. If no teachers are available during the period when a substitute is needed, classes may be canceled and students sent home.

Teachers commit themselves to a long period of training – a minimum of 6 or 7 years, including student teaching. Student teaching lasts for 2 years, during which time students teach part time and concurrently attend courses at state-sponsored seminars. While teachers were highly critical of their university training, most considered their student teaching experience to be the most valuable and practically-oriented phase of their training. Continuing education offerings are abundant, but not obligatory, in most states.

The options for professional advancement of German teachers are limited. One possibility is to advance within the school administration, becoming assistant principals or principals. They may also become instructors of student teachers or may find positions within the state or regional education ministry.

The large majority of teachers are civil servants with tenure. However, teachers in the new states (former East Germany) have not been given civil servant status. The "teacher as civil servant" is an issue of current debate. While more than half of all teachers belong to one of several national teachers' unions, their status as civil servants prohibits them from striking.

The level of social status and respect accorded to German teachers varies with the type and location of school at which they teach. While all teachers in Germany tend to be respected as highly trained professionals, teacher respondents did report a status hierarchy among teachers at different types of schools. For example, Gymnasium teachers tended to be held in much higher esteem than other types of teachers. Realschule and Gesamtschule teachers had less status, and Grundschule and Hauptschule teachers had the lowest status of all teachers.

The degree of teacher interaction and cooperation varies widely from school to school, but overall both interaction and cooperation seem to be limited. Teacher-student interaction ranged from formal to informal. At the Grundschule warm and friendly relations are mixed with firmness. In secondary schools, particularly at the Gymnasium, behavior and discipline become more important issues. Teacher-parent relations also vary widely. Most parents are involved when their children are at the Grundschule, but become less so when they move to a secondary school.

Among the most common problems faced by teachers are classroom discipline and difficult students. Many teachers felt that the increase in behavior problems in school was owing to societal and familial pressures that they could do little to counter.

[Chapter 5 (Part 3 of 4)]

[Glossary]