A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

Chapter 5
Teachers and the Teaching Profession in Germany
(Part 3 of 4)

The Profession of Teaching

The Beginning Teacher

Hiring procedures.After finishing student teaching, beginning teachers apply to the regional school office (Regierungspräsident) for employment. Only those wishing to teach at a private school apply directly to the school. While the principal of a school can request that a particular teacher be hired for her or his school, principals do not have the authority to make personnel decisions themselves. The grade earned on the Second State Examination, the demand for teachers at a particular type of school, and the need for teachers of particular subjects are the primary determinants of an individual's chance of finding a teaching position. Depending on demand, teachers may be sent to a school in the city of their first or second choice. If a teacher is sent to a city or school she or he dislikes, the teacher later has the option of applying for a transfer to a different school.

Most beginning teachers are 26 to 30 years old, sometimes older, when they apply for their first teaching position. This is due primarily to the long length of teacher training programs (6 or 7 years, depending on type of school). In addition, beginning male teachers are often older than their female colleagues, because they are required to either serve in the military for 1 year or perform civil service for more than 1 year after finishing secondary school.

Demand for new teachers. The demand for new teachers is strongly influenced by trends in school enrollment as well as other social and political factors. When school enrollments drop sharply, as they did throughout the 1980's, there is an oversupply of teachers and significant unemployment of beginning teachers results. This is heightened by the fact that teachers are civil servants and cannot be laid off. In 1980 the German labor office reported nearly 7,400 fully-trained new teachers who were unemployed. This figure rose sharply to a high of more than 25,000 in 1985. Then, as enrollments rose, especially at Grundschulen, the number of unemployed teachers began to decline, reaching about 13,200 in 1992 (KMK 1993a, 1993b). Currently, teachers at Grundschulen and teachers of the middle grades at secondary schools are in demand, and have little problem finding a position.

Mentor and support systems. Most teachers were of the opinion that a "mentor" or master teacher who guides and assists new teachers was neither necessary nor desirable. When asked about mentors, teachers often referred back to their student teaching. After 2 years of student teaching under the supervision of mentors, most respondents said that they were ready to teach on their own. Some suggested that a reduction of the teaching load for beginning teachers would be more appropriate than assigning a master teacher. Teachers said that the first year of teaching was hard, because they had to cope with a full teaching load in contrast to only 12 periods a week during their years of student teaching.

The potential drawbacks of a mentor system were emphasized by many teachers:

I think that a new teacher should not have a mentor. Every teacher has a different teaching style and personality. There is the danger that the new teacher will try to copy teaching methods as well as personality traits from his or her colleague. (Grundschule teacher)

Teachers reported that it is crucial for a beginning teacher to be independent and to be able to try out different teaching styles. Nevertheless, they also believed that a beginning teacher should seek out those colleagues who can help her or him cope with difficulties. Often, difficulties are not related to subject content but rather involve discipline problems in the classroom. Thus, beginning teachers often seek advice and mentorship on an informal level.

Overall, teachers at all stages of their careers lack formal support. According to Terhart (1993), an education researcher, the support system for German teachers during their professional lives is insufficient. This support, in theory at least, could be provided by continuing education and counseling procedures. Lack of such measures frequently results in burnout and high rates of early retirement among teachers. In fact, about half of all teachers retire before they turn 60 ("Hessens fehlgeleitete Lehrer" 1994).

Teachers were not likely to mention a lack of continuing education or counseling in discussing the need for teacher support systems, stressing instead the difficulties of their daily work life, such as large class sizes and heavy teaching loads. Of all respondents, only Gesamtschule teachers mentioned a need for counseling procedures for teachers:

I think that we need more social workers and school psychologists who help not only students but also teachers to deal with problems. Teachers need concrete coping strategies for how to help students.

The Credentialed Teacher

Observations and performance evaluation. Beginning teachers are first appointed to a probationary position, usually of 3 years' duration, during which time they are observed in class by school inspectors and the school principal on several occasions. At the end of the probationary period, teachers in the old states are eligible to become civil servants. In the new states, teachers from former East Germany had to reapply for teaching positions after unification and were observed and evaluated for 2 years before becoming nontenured teachers without civil servant status.

Once teachers become civil servants, they are generally evaluated by school inspectors every 4 to 6 years until the age of 55. Assessment arrangements vary according to the type of school and the individual state. In the Grundschule and Hauptschule (also Realschule in Nordrhein-Westfalen), an inspector from the regional school office evaluates each teacher through classroom observation and an examination of the teacher's written lesson plans and graded assessment of students' work.

After discussing the observations and evaluations with the teacher, the inspector then writes a detailed report, which includes an evaluation of the teacher's subject knowledge, teaching performance, behavior on the job, and overall contribution to the school and community. The teacher has an opportunity to comment on the inspector's evaluation and must sign the report to show that he or she has seen it.

Gymnasium teachers (in Bavaria, also Realschule teachers) are usually evaluated by the school principal, although often with the involvement of a subject specialist inspector for the region. The periodic assessment of teachers' performance provides the state with a dossier on each teacher, which is used in considering teachers for promotion and higher salaries (Department of Education and Science 1986). A Gymnasium teacher said that teachers take these performance evaluations seriously because of the importance of receiving a strong evaluation for promotion.

What happens if a teacher does not perform satisfactorily or has difficulties in his or her relationship with students? In the very worst case, a teacher may be asked to change schools, but is not fired. According to an assistant principal at a Gymnasium, parents are usually the first to complain about a teacher who is not performing satisfactorily. The school principal will then observe the teacher's classes. If no improvement is noticed after discussing his or her observations with the teacher, the principal may then call the regional school office and an inspector will visit the teacher's class. However, it is difficult for a principal or school authorities to take actions against a teacher who is not performing satisfactorily. According to a recent article (Orth 1994), school principals are often hesitant in dealing with a problematic teacher because of concern that the school's reputation will suffer if he or she takes steps against a teacher. In fact, no matter how unhappy the parents and principal may be with a bad teacher, it is nearly impossible to change a teacher's employment status unless he or she has seriously harmed a student. Several principals interviewed in the present study said that there are always some bad teachers in a school, and that there is little that can be done about it.

The goal of teacher assessment is to encourage performance; however, teachers who have previously worked in industry said that one cannot compare the teaching profession with professions in the private sector, where poor performance may lead to termination:

I think that future teachers as well as those currently employed should be hired and promoted according to their performance at the university and in the school. I worked in industry before becoming a teacher and if people did not perform according to expectations, they were fired. It is a different story in the schools. Once a teacher becomes a civil servant, he or she can relax. (Gymnasium teacher)

Continuing education offerings. There are numerous state-sponsored institutions and academies offering continuing education courses for experienced teachers. On the local and regional level, additional opportunities for taking courses are offered by unions, universities, and miscellaneous private and religious organizations. In total, over 450 German institutions offer courses for teachers. In addition, schools may organize their own continuing training programs as a means of addressing issues of great concern. To this end, schools invite experts to discuss how to tackle particular problems at school (Schulz 1990).

Many teachers referred to comprehensive brochures from state-run education offices describing their course offerings. In addition to these brochures, information about local institutions can be found in teachers' lounges. Courses are taught by instructors from state seminars, professors, or teachers and principals who have special knowledge in areas such as using meditation in the classroom. In general, there is a great variety of course offerings from which to choose to meet the needs of most teachers. Principals or teachers who wish to become principals may choose courses focusing on management. Teachers may select interdisciplinary topics, such as environmental education, or courses in their subject areas dealing with a specific topic or new methodology. Some courses last an entire week and are held in a resort location, whereas others last only an afternoon and are held in a school.

A beginning Realschule/Hauptschule teacher commented on the role of continuing education in her school:

Some teachers always take advantage of continuing education, others never participate. Nobody checks who participates in continuing education. I don't think my school is really interested in who attends these courses. My impression is that quite a few teachers do not take continuing education seriously and only participate because they want to travel and meet other people.

Teachers who wish to participate in continuing education offerings during school hours must apply for permission from the school principal, since other teachers must substitute for a teacher who is absent because of continuing education. In general, a teacher may request up to a week off during a given school year to participate in continuing education programs.

Even in states where participation in continuing education is obligatory, teachers still have considerable freedom of choice:

Teachers are required to participate in continuing education, but they are not told what courses they should take. There is a principle of free choice in this. The teacher applies to attend courses that interest him or her, and it is very seldom that a teacher does not apply for some sort of course on his or her own. The courses a teacher attends are recorded in his or her file. They are then used in the assessment of the teacher's performance every 4 years. (Gymnasium teacher in South City)

Attitudes toward continuing education. Teachers often mentioned a lack of time as a reason for not participating in continuing education programs, which are not obligatory in most states. They said that they only participate if there is a course offered which catches their interest. Teachers with many years of service are apparently much less likely to participate in continuing education than are beginning teachers. As one Grundschule teacher remarked informally: "If we don't know how to teach after so many years of service, we're no good."

In contrast to teachers in the old states, teachers interviewed in the new states said that they attend continuing education offerings on a regular basis, because they need to learn about the newest developments in their subject areas. Accordingly, bulletin boards in teachers' lounges provide information about the numerous in-service training opportunities available.

Independent study. Teachers mentioned the importance of independent study and reading, in addition to formal continuing education courses, as a means of keeping abreast of the latest developments in their fields. They said that for the most part, continuing education is done privately by ordering new books and subscribing to magazines. Gymnasium teachers in particular stressed that it is important to read about new developments, so that a teacher is not giving students information which is 20 years old. In schools, magazines and books are displayed either in the teachers' lounge or in a separate library. Magazines such as Mathematik Lehren (Teaching Math) appear 6 times during the year. Each issue is devoted to a different topic, and articles range from technical mathematical explanations to examples of how to teach a unit and suggestions for interdisciplinary projects. Recent topics have included "Geometry," "Software," and "Math and German."

Grundschule teachers said they subscribe to the magazines Die Grundschule (Elementary School) or to Praxis Grundschule (Elementary School Practice). In addition to offering concrete examples of lessons or projects units and related worksheets, these magazines feature topical articles on such diverse topics as aggression in the classroom, Grundschule reform, creative writing, and arithmetic in Grundschule.

In general, experienced teachers viewed continuing education as a commitment to keeping current in their field by reading relevant books and journals. Experienced teachers often expressed an unwillingness to allocate time to attend continuing education courses because of family commitments or other reasons. In contrast, beginning teachers were more likely to participate in continuing education offerings.

Opportunities for Advancement

Opportunities for promotion for teachers are limited. In general, they include the possibility of teachers becoming an assistant principal or principal, accepting a position in the local education office, or becoming an instructor at a state-sponsored seminar for student teachers. In each case, teachers who are promoted retain their civil servant status. Teachers who are not promoted still receive an increase in salary based on number of years of service.

Options for Gymnasium teachers. Of all types of teachers, Gymnasium teachers have the most frequent opportunities for promotion. Gymnasium teachers, after attaining civil servant status, are given the formal title of "study advisor" (Studienrat) instead of "teacher" (Lehrer/Lehrerin). A Gymnasium teacher may be promoted to head study advisor (Oberstudienrat) after 5 years of service. After this, a Gymnasium teacher may be promoted to "study director" or "assistant principal" (Studiendirektor), and finally to principal (Oberstudiendirektor). Promotion not only involves a change of title but also an increase in salary and status (Bundesanstalt für Arbeit 1991).

Options for all teachers. Teachers at all schools may advance within the school hierarchy and receive an increase in salary. Within the school, the highest position, which may be attained, is that of principal. Principals are not specially trained for their position; rather, they are normally teachers who are promoted to this position after several years of service. Grundschule, Hauptschule, and Realschule teachers may become assistant principals or principals at their school or another school of the same type. The appointment of a principal is determined by the faculty of the school and the regional school office, based on candidates' previous performance in managing people and teaching. In addition, the school official (Schulrat) schedules a day for visiting the school to observe and evaluate the candidate for promotion. First, the candidate submits a detailed lesson plan and is observed while teaching this lesson. Second, the candidate observes another teacher's class with the school official and is asked afterwards to comment on and evaluate his or her colleague's lesson. Moreover, the candidate must also show competence in facilitating a conference, which the school official attends. At the end of the evaluation visit, the school official informs the candidate whether or not he or she will be considered for the position.

The assistant principal and principal. Principals and assistant principals teach as much as their schedule allows. For example, a principal at a vocational school with around 1,000 students teaches four periods a week. Principals stressed that it is important for them to teach in order to maintain a collegial relationship with other teachers in the school. In addition to teaching, the assistant principal assists the principal with preparing school statistics and other administrative tasks, such as allocating classrooms or coordinating examination schedules. The assistant principal is also responsible for creating schedules for substitute teaching. For example, an assistant principal at a combined Haupt/ Realschule said that she starts designing plans for substitute teachers each day at 7:00 a.m., half an hour before first period begins. She mentioned that the substitute teaching schedule is often the source of conflict with other teachers, since most do not want to sacrifice their free period in order to substitute for another teacher.

The typical responsibilities of a Gymnasium principal are overall school supervision and administration, including developing a budget. Moreover, the principal is required to observe and evaluate teachers. When asked how often they observe teachers in their schools, several principals admitted, with hesitation, that they attempt to observe classes but often do not find the time to do so until a teacher is being considered for promotion. However, even though the principal is responsible for evaluation of fellow teachers, there is not a great distinction between school administration and school faculty, as members of administration and faculty are all teachers and the great majority are civil servants.

Instructor of student teachers. In addition to opportunities for advancement within the school, qualified teachers may become instructors at state-sponsored seminars for student teachers on a full-time or part-time basis. Although they maintain their position as a school teacher, part-time instructors receive a reduction in their teaching load to compensate for their additional activities. For example, a part-time trainer supervising 10 student teachers receives a reduction of 10 periods in his or her teaching load. However, because there is currently a great demand for seminar instructors, most trainers hold full-time appointments.

To be promoted to a position as seminar instructor, teachers must apply and compete for publicly posted openings. In recent years, due to a high demand for trainers, teachers have also been recommended for vacant positions by former instructors or fellow teachers. A recommendation will be sent to the local and regional school offices. Officials from the school office then observe and evaluate the teacher candidate and make the final appointment decision. Seminar instructors are not required to complete any additional formal training. A Grundschule teacher and seminar instructor said: "Basically, we teach future teachers from our own teaching repertoire."

The Teacher as Civil Servant

Most teachers in the old states are civil servants (Beamte) with tenure. In Nordrhein-Westfalen, for example, 92 percent of the more than 140,000 teachers are civil servants with tenure; the rest are nontenured teachers (Schulz 1990). Only German citizens are eligible to become civil servants. Following a decision by the European Union (EU) court in 1986, the German government was required to allow citizens of EU-countries to teach in German schools. EU-nationals, however, cannot become civil servants, and must remain as nontenured teachers. Still, nontenured teachers enjoy most of the same benefits received by civil servants.

Teachers must comply with the general regulations for professional and ethical conduct which apply for all civil servants. Namely, teachers are obliged to maintain impartiality, unselfishness, confidentiality, commitment to community support, and allegiance to the federal constitution. However, there is no code of behavior written specifically for teachers (Schwänke 1988).

The teacher as a civil servant has a long history in the German states. Starting with the Prussians, teachers were assumed to serve the interest of the state. In 1872, teachers at the Gymnasium were given civil servant status and later, in the 1920's, this status was extended to teachers at other school types, as well. However, the appropriateness and need for teachers to be civil servants has been challenged from many sides. Leading Social Democratic (SPD) politicians have suggested eliminating the civil servant status for teachers. The primary motivation for taking such a step is economic: the above-average percentage of teachers taking early retirement, the predictable explosion of government spending for pensions, and the wave of teachers in the new states desiring civil servant status are all hotly debated issues among politicians ("Pädagogen müssen nicht Beamte sein" 1994).

Not only politicians and journalists, but also teachers themselves argue about whether or not teachers should be civil servants. Teachers mentioned several reasons for discontinuing their civil servant status:

Actually, I think it is bad that teachers have job security for their entire career. There is no evaluation of whether someone is doing a good job as a teacher or whether they would be better off looking for another career. I think that this is harmful, not only for the students, but also for the teacher involved. (Grundschule teacher)

Currently, the "teacher as civil servant" is an important issue because teachers in the new states are not eligible to become civil servants, unlike teachers in the old states. Most teachers in the new states were concerned that they could possibly lose their jobs in the near future. For example, Grundschule teachers in one new state signed an agreement in which they agreed to work part time (a 23-period teaching load) in return for the promise of job security for the following 6 years. Grundschule teachers in this state were particularly concerned about job security, because their state plans to eliminate approximately 1,000 Grundschule teaching positions in the coming years. Teachers interviewed in the new states were convinced that they would not be granted civil servant status because the government does not have the financial resources to introduce civil servant status for all teachers.

Social Status

The level of respect that teachers are granted in German society is related to their position as civil servants, but depends, according to teachers, on the type and location of school at which a teacher is employed. For example, a Hauptschule teacher said teachers are less respected in large cities, because there are more people with advanced degrees than in a small city or village. Teachers also reported a status hierarchy among teachers at different types of schools. They agreed that Grundschule and Hauptschule teachers had the lowest status of all teachers, Realschule and Gesamtschule teachers were slightly higher in status, and far above the rest were teachers at the Gymnasium.

Teachers are well respected. It is a profession, which has to a certain extent, an exceptional position [in society]. It is an academic profession. At the Gymnasium, the teachers often have their doctorate. As an academic profession, teaching is certainly acknowledged. (Gymnasium teacher)

However, not all Gymnasium teachers were so confident about their social status:

I would not say that I am a teacher, because teachers are considered to be the 'fools of society.' Everybody thinks they know exactly what a teacher should be like. They already have their little picture framed in their minds. (Math teacher at a Gymnasium)

In general, the Gymnasium teachers surveyed identified themselves as a specialist in a subject, such as a mathematician, historian, or physicist, and not primarily as a teacher. For example, one teacher said that if he goes to a party and introduces himself, he will introduce himself as a mathematician rather than as a math teacher at the Gymnasium. He said that he does not feel as respected as a Gymnasium teacher, since many people believe teachers work only half a day. He wants to be treated and respected as a professional and thus hides the fact that he is a teacher.

A common complaint heard throughout the interviews regarded the stigmatization of teachers as part-time workers. In the eye of the general public, teachers have long vacations (12 weeks in total) as well as afternoons off. Teachers emphasized that although they can structure a large portion of their work time themselves, while they are in school they basically work nonstop in a fast-paced, high-stress environment. They also felt that most people are not aware of how much time they spend at home preparing for their classes and grading exams. They expressed frustration with the expectations placed on teachers and disappointment with what they perceive as declining respect for their profession.

Teachers are always blamed for everything. How can you decide who is a good or bad teacher? What are the criteria? There are so many expectations it is hard to fulfill them all. Teachers are no longer respected in society the way they used to be. (Gymnasium teacher in East City)

The parent of a combined Haupt/Realschule student shared this opinion, commenting that "I would not want to be a teacher nowadays. Kids challenge their teachers and do not respect them as much as they used to."

Teachers also saw evidence of dwindling respect in declining financial support for teachers and increased demands from state education ministries.

It shows in the way the state and communities allocate resources. They always cut down on resources for schools first. The teacher has to deal with the consequences of large class size and a heavy teaching load. If the teacher fails to do a good job, he or she will be blamed for it.

Compensation

Because they are civil servants, teachers' salaries are determined by a national pay scale for civil servants (Bundesbesoldungsgesetz). Teachers are paid at the salary levels A-12 to A-16 (about $35,000 to $49,000 annually). Table 2 demonstrates the salary range. Grundschule and Hauptschule teachers are paid at the A-12 level ($35,000 on average in 1993), Realschule and beginning Gymnasium teachers at A-13 ($38,000), Grundschule principals or experienced Gymnasium teachers at A-14 ($40,000), Realschule principal or assistant principal at a Gymnasium at A-15 ($44,000), and finally, principal at a Gymnasium or vocational school at A-16 ($49,000). However, the annual salaries of civil servants also vary according to length of service, marital status, and size of family (Bavarian State Ministry of Education 1993).

A teachers' salary includes the base salary plus a household supplement, usually around 30 to 35 percent of the base salary, which varies according to family status. Teachers with full civil servant status also enjoy good fringe benefits, such as health care, vacation time, Christmas bonuses, and a pension upon retirement. As civil servants, they are also able to take unpaid sabbatical and personal leaves of up to 12 years in duration. This combines to make teaching an attractive option for individuals who wish to spend several years devoted to childrearing with the promise of job security when they wish to reenter the professional world. Civil servants receive a raise for years of service every 2 years until they turn 50, after which their salaries remain constant.

In the new states, teachers now earn 84 percent of what their colleagues earn in the old states. Teachers in the new states complained that they have a heavier teaching load and larger classes than their colleagues in the old states and receive lower compensation.

Table 2 — Gross annual salaries of teachers and administrators at various types of schools, according to national pay scale (Bundesbesoldungsgesetz)

Teachers are also compensated during their 2 years of student teaching. In general, student teachers earn about half of what they will earn as beginning, full-time teachers. They are also considered to be civil servants in training, and as such receive many of the same benefits enjoyed by other civil servants, such as extra compensation for spouse and children and vacation bonus pay. At the lowest end of the pay scale, a single student teacher at a Grundschule or Hauptschule, under 26 years old, earns just under 1,800 DM ($860) per month. At the highest end of the scale, a married student teacher at the Gymnasium, over 26 years old, will earn 2,600 DM ($1,240) per month (Kultusminister Nordrhein-Westfalen 1994).

Retirement. When teachers turn 65 they are eligible for normal retirement; however, many teachers choose to take early retirement and therefore receive a reduced pension. The size of the pension depends on the total number of years a teacher worked. For example, a teacher with 35 years of teaching experience receives 75 percent of her or his most recent compensation (Schulz 1990). Years spent during university training and directed student teaching also count as a total of 5 years toward retirement.

Teachers' Unions

Teachers have the right to join a union, although they are not allowed to strike because of their status as civil servants. In 1987, about 65 percent of the more than 540,000 teachers in Germany belonged to one of four main teachers' unions. The largest is the Union of Education and Science (Gewerkschaft Erziehung und Wissenschaft) [GEW] which has about 200,000 members, of whom 130,000 are teachers or student teachers. The GEW represents educators in many fields, including university professors and technical college teachers, in addition to teachers at public and private schools. The Union of Training and Education (Verband Bildung und Erziehung) [VBE] represents 100,000 teachers. Members mainly stem from Grundschule, Hauptschule, and Sonderschule. The German Teachers Union (Deutscher Lehrerverband) [LV] represents 120,000 members. Members mainly stem from Gymnasium, Realschule, and Berufsschule. In addition, there is the Union of Philologists (Philologenverband), which is aimed at Gymnasium teachers.

Unions lobby for the professional, economic, legal, and social interests of their members. Union delegates attend meetings at state education ministries regarding teacher training and working conditions, although all decisions are made solely by the ministers of education (Schwänke 1988). Union agendas also include public relations work through the publication of magazines and organization of conferences. The GEW, for example, publishes Erziehung und Wissenschaft (Education and Science) which discusses issues pertinent to teaching and education.

Political differences exist between unions. The GEW, for example, supports the Gesamtschule as an alternative to the traditional tripartite school system of Hauptschule, Realschule, and Gymnasium, which, the GEW argues, reinforces existing social stratification (Schulz 1990). In the past, the GEW helped reform teacher training by advocating at least six semesters of mandatory university study for all teachers. In addition, the GEW fought for and achieved better compensation for Grundschule and Hauptschule teachers (Körfgen 1986). Currently, the GEW is demanding, among other things, a reduction in the average teaching load and equal compensation for teachers in the new states.

[Chapter 5 (Part 2 of 4)]

[Chapter 5 (Part 4 of 4)]