![[Table of Contents]](/icons/up.gif){kind=icon}
Most interviewed teachers said that their training occurred too long ago for them to recall the program in detail. Moreover, the training system has been subject to a great many reforms, and as a result, teachers said they were not always up to date on current teacher training. Most were quick to add the general comment, however, that the experience was too theoretical and not practice related.
Presently, teachers in all states must complete a 24-month period of student teaching before applying for their first full-time teaching position. In the 1970's, it was possible in some cases for new graduates to take on a permanent teaching position at a school and complete the necessary student teaching seminars while employed. This situation led to quite a different dynamic between teachers and student teachers within a school. For example, a teacher at a Haupt/Realschule remembered her first position and compared it with the situation for current student teachers:
After finishing at the university, I started working as a teacher and also got paid a teacher's salary. In addition, I already had job security and did not have to worry about finding a teaching position. Currently, student teachers do their student teaching and have no idea whether they will be able to work in their profession. This can be quite demotivating.
Presently, it should be noted, secondary teachers with common subject combinations, such as English/German, often have a difficult time finding a teaching position. The demand for particular subject combinations and the grade a student teacher earns at the end of the training phase determine his or her chances of finding a teaching position. Whereas secondary teachers currently face a very tight job market, Grundschule teachers are presently in great demand. This is due primarily to higher enrollments in Grundschulen and to the large numbers of retiring Grundschule teachers.
Changes in teacher education. Some of the changes in teacher training introduced in recent years have resulted from the work of the KMK (Standing Conference of Education Ministers from the German states). Education in Germany is a matter handled individually by each of the 16 states; however, the KMK coordinates the work of the education ministries in each state. In 1990, the KMK agreed on minimal requirements for the number of courses in major subjects and in education and educational psychology required for completion of university teacher training (KMK 1992). This agreement was an attempt to remove obstacles for teachers who wished to transfer to a different state, a problem that arose because of differences in teacher training programs between states. As an example of minimum requirements, prospective Gymnasium teachers are required to take 8 to 10 semester hours in general education and educational psychology, and a total of 120 to 130 semester hours in 2 major subjects, such as math and biology (Bundesanstalt für Arbeit 1991).
Length of teacher training. Teacher training for all types of schools consists of 4 to 5 years of academic training at a university followed by 2 years of student teaching. The minimum length of university studies varies from 3 years (plus an additional year for final examinations) for Grundschule teachers to 4 or 5 years (plus an additional year for examinations) for Gymnasium and vocational school teachers. However, in many cases, students require more than the minimum number of semesters in order to satisfy all course requirements for certification. After completing all required courses at the university, students finish their university studies with the First State Examination (Erstes Staatsexamen) and then undergo 2 years of training as a student teacher before taking the Second State Examination to become a certified teacher.
Types of teachers. In all states, teachers are certified in one of the following areas: Grundschule for primary-level teachers for grades 1–4 (1–6 in Berlin and Brandenburg); Hauptschule and Realschule teachers for grades 5–10; Gymnasium and Gesamtschule teachers for grades 5–13; vocational-school teachers for grades 10–13; and special education (Sonderschule) teachers for all grade levels. In Hessen, Bremen and Hamburg, teachers can be certified for both primary and secondary level (grades 1–10) in their major subject or subjects. Of all these categories of teachers, only special education teachers were not interviewed in this study.
Presently, teachers for all types of public schools in Germany complete university training programs. In the past, only Gymnasium teachers were trained at universities, while Grundschule, Hauptschule and Realschule teachers were trained at special teacher colleges (pädagogische Hochschulen). Most states integrated training for all teachers into university programs during the 1970's and 1980's in the belief that teachers would receive a more solid foundation in major subjects at the university. One consequence of this reform was the fact that Grundschule, Hauptschule, and Realschule teachers received a considerable increase in salary in recognition of their higher degree of training. However, some critics have questioned whether teachers receive an appropriate education at large, overcrowded universities (Führ 1989).
Teacher education programs are fragmented and are found throughout various university departments. Although course requirements and examination regulations for type and level of school are set by state education ministries, students enjoy considerable freedom in choosing individual courses within the required disciplines. Teachers who have recently finished their training said that in the current university system, there is a lack of guidance for students in choosing courses relevant to their future career.
Prerequisites for university programs. The Abitur, or comprehensive exit examination at the end of the 12th or 13th grade of Gymnasium, is required for university admission. Traditionally, there were no other requirements to enroll in a teacher training program. Currently, however, overenrollment and high numbers of unemployed teachers have led some states to attempt to limit the number of students in teacher education programs. In Baden-Württemberg, for example, only students with above-average Abitur grades can count on admission to teacher training programs. Some believe, however, that the Abitur grade is not the appropriate criterion by which to select students who are suited for teaching. Instead, many favor the use of specific tests and school internships so that students form a realistic picture of the teaching profession and are able to judge for themselves whether or not they are suited for it. The University of Heidelberg, for example, offers students the opportunity to participate in school internships before they begin a teacher training program (Rauin 1994).
Certification. The Ministry of Education in each federal state sets the basic requirements for certification of teachers in that state. Although the Ministry of Education develops the content of the First State Examination, a separate body, the State Examination Board (Staatliches Prüfungsamt), is responsible for administering the exam. As a rule, the First State Examination consists of the following components: a written thesis in one of the student's two major subjects or in general education; a written and oral examination in all of the student's major subjects, including general education; and, in some cases, a practical exam which may also consist of performance evaluations for students concentrating in art, music, physical education, or in technical fields (KMK 1992).
Course requirements. All students must take courses in pedagogy and educational psychology, but other course requirements vary according to the type of school for which students will be certified. Math and science teachers concentrate in their subject areas, but otherwise fulfill the same course requirements as other teachers do for that type of school. While teachers for Gymnasien and vocational schools take more courses in each of their two major subjects, Grundschule and Hauptschule teachers take additional courses in general education. As part of the general education requirement, Grundschule teachers take courses in the philosophy and history of education, educational psychology, teaching methodology, didactics, and a basic course in either philosophy, sociology or political science. At the University of Frankfurt, for example, students in Grundschule education are required to take a total of 40 semester hours in general education and an additional 40 semester hours in each of their 2 major subjects (Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Forschung Baden-Württemberg [MWFBW] 1994). The course requirements for Haupt and Realschule teachers are similar to those for Grundschule teachers.
Some states, however, stipulate other subjects in which Grundschule teachers must concentrate. For example, in Nordrhein-Westfalen, Grundschule teachers must concentrate in mathematics and German in addition to their primary subject (Bundesanstalt für Arbeit 1993). The mathematics courses include four semester hours in arithmetic and four semester hours in geometry. As part of this requirement, students devote one semester hour to practicing previously discussed arithmetic or geometry problems. In addition, students are required to enroll in so-called "teaching methods" courses on selected topics in arithmetic and geometry.
Gymnasium teachers concentrate on two major subjects in addition to general education. University training for Gymnasium teachers emphasizes the academic content of subjects to a greater extent than does training for teachers at other types of schools. In the past, this emphasis came at the cost of fewer courses in education. Since the beginning of the 1970's, however, the number of required credit hours in general education has been increased for Gymnasium teachers (MWFBW 1994). At the University of Frankfurt, for example, prospective Gymnasium teachers take 20–24 semester hours in general education and 64 semester hours in each of their 2 chosen subjects (MWFBW 1994).
Vocational school teachers are required to complete a 12-month internship in business or industry in addition to academic study. Previously completed vocational training (apprenticeship) in a relevant field also fulfills the internship requirement. In addition to a vocational subject, prospective vocational school teachers are required to concentrate on an academic subject, such as biology, chemistry, German, English, religion, or mathematics, and to take courses in general education. For example, students at the Technical University of Darmstadt (Hessen) take a total of 18 semester hours in general education and 60 semester hours in each of their two chosen subjects (MWFBW 1993).
The course requirements, subject combinations, and practical components for future vocational school teachers also vary according to state. However, the KMK has agreed upon general programs of study and examinations in each of the following vocational areas: metalworking, electronics, construction, graphic arts, textile science, biotechnology, chemical technology, economics, public administration, nutrition and home economics, agricultural science, and social science. In some subject areas there has been a deficit of qualified vocational teachers, partly because many students are attracted to more lucrative careers in industry. In an attempt to satisfy the demand for vocational teachers in certain areas, qualified people from business and industry have been recruited and immediately accepted into the second phase of teacher training (Graf & Ronecker 1991).
Students who wish to teach at a Gesamtschule complete university programs and are certified at the grade level they plan to teach. There is no university program specific for the Gesamtschule. Rather, Gesamtschule teachers are trained as Hauptschule, Realschule, or Gymnasium teachers. In a typical Gesamtschule, roughly 40 percent of all teachers are certified as Hauptschule teachers, 30 percent as Realschule teachers, 27 percent as Gymnasium teachers, and 3 percent as vocational teachers, special education teachers, or school psychologists (Schulz 1990).
In addition to academic course requirements, all states require a component of practical experience and classroom observation as part of a teacher's university training. The length of the practical component varies from state to state. At the University of Frankfurt, for example, prospective teachers for all school types spend a total of 10 weeks in schools during their university education (MWFBW 1994).
After completing their university studies with the First State Examination, prospective teachers are eligible to begin student teaching. However, according to a recent report, two out of three students who begin university studies in education do not finish with the First State Examination, and quite a few students who finish the First State Examination do not begin the student teaching phase (Rauin 1994).
Criticism of university training. Teachers generally confirmed the findings of several recent surveys on the quality of university teacher education programs, which reported heavy student criticism of the lack of balance between theory and practice in their studies. All of the teachers interviewed, regardless of the type of school in which they worked, complained that their university studies were not sufficiently oriented toward practice. Many Grundschule teachers criticized the fact that they had to take many courses of a theoretical nature. One Grundschule teacher said that the current student teacher she was working with, learned a level of mathematics which has nothing to do with the Grundschule:
Students should learn how kids learn math and how a teacher develops a unit in math or an interdisciplinary unit, for example. Sure, it is important that students receive a good background in the chosen subjects. However, I think that university studies should be used even more for learning how to approach a lesson.
Hauptschule and Realschule teachers also agreed that the teacher training was too theoretical. Many thought that students should be given opportunities to visit schools frequently and also to teach classes during their studies. One Gesamtschule teacher said that course offerings at the university should reflect current issues and problems: "I think that teachers should learn coping strategies during their university studies for dealing with difficult students. When I started teaching, I did not feel prepared for dealing with kids with problems."
Gymnasium teachers generally said they were satisfied with the quality and quantity of subject matter learned during their university studies, confirming the findings of previous studies. At the same time, Gymnasium teachers described the required courses in education as being of little value (Klinzing 1990).
Despite widespread criticism of university training for teachers, the system has apparently not been changed, and one teacher interviewed speculated on why this might be.
Students who finish their university studies often are too preoccupied with the reality of teaching to try to make an impact on the existing university training for teachers. Then, once they feel established as teachers, they lose touch with and interest in the university community, so that there is little motivation for them to try to reform university training. In addition, I think that while they are still students, future teachers do not have a good overview of the profession and thus are not aware of what they will need to know as teachers. (Grundschule teacher)
While some informants found the adequacy and usefulness of university studies lacking, the overwhelming majority of informants agreed that student teaching was extremely helpful in preparing them for their profession. Teachers said they experienced a "practice shock" when they started student teaching because of a lack of practical knowledge during their university studies. In fact, all teachers emphasized that student teaching was an extremely stressful time in their lives.
In contrast to teacher education programs at universities, which vary greatly from state to state, student teaching is similar in every state. Prospective teachers, upon completion of university studies, apply at the local education district office (Regierungspräsident) for assignment as a student teacher. Future Gymnasium, vocational school, Realschule, Hauptschule, Gesamtschule, and Grundschule teachers are required to do student teaching for 24 months, during which time they receive remuneration as civil servants in training.
Student teaching programs. Student teaching consists of the following four phases over a 24-month period: an introductory phase over 3 months, during which student teachers spend 10 hours per week in classroom observation or assisted teaching; a differentiation phase over 6 months, including classroom observation and 4–8 hours per week of teaching; an intensive phase over 12 months including 4 hours per week observation and/or assisted teaching and 8–10 hours per week of unassisted teaching; and a period of preparation for the Second State Examination over 3 months which includes assisted and unassisted teaching and observation (Kultusministerium Hessisches 1990).
Students complete their student teaching with the Second State Examination. The examination committee consists of six members and is chaired by a representative or school inspector from the state education ministry. Other members of the committee include the head of the student teaching seminar, the two subject mentors, the principal of the school in which the student did his or her student teaching, and one teacher chosen by the student.
The examination committee's final evaluation is based on the following items: the pre-examination grade, determined by reports by mentor teachers and seminar instructors commenting on the student teacher's overall performance; the grade on a written thesis on lessons and units that the student teacher has taught; the grade for an oral examination (60 minutes in duration), consisting of questions on methodology, subject-related issues, or school laws and school organization; and the grades on two written lesson plans in two subjects, which are also observed by members of the examination committee. There is no separate written test as part of the Second State Examination. (Kultusministerium Hessisches 1990).
Seminar instructors advise students on the choice of a thesis topic, which is chosen 3 months before the student submits his or her thesis. The thesis is evaluated by two instructors chosen by the head of the student teaching seminar. Each instructor provides a written evaluation of the student teacher's thesis and assigns the student a grade. If the evaluators disagree on the grade, a representative from the education ministry will meet with the instructors and decide which grade is appropriate.
Student teacher responsibilities. Student teachers usually spend between 10 and 12 45-minute periods each week in school observing and teaching classes alone or with the assistance of their mentor teacher. Concurrently, they attend courses in each of their teaching subjects at the state-sponsored seminar once or twice a week. Students have a different seminar instructor for each subject. Students also observe lessons taught by fellow student teachers once a week by traveling with the seminar instructor to different schools. Student teachers are observed and evaluated by seminar instructors about 20 times during the 2 years of student teaching. For each of these visits, the student teacher must prepare a comprehensive lesson plan consisting of these elements: a general discussion of their students' social and intellectual abilities; objectives for the entire lesson unit and for the particular lesson observed; a detailed agenda for the 45-minute period; a rationale for the topic and objectives of the lesson as well as for the particular methodologies, media, and classroom management techniques to be used; a subject matter analysis; and a bibliography of relevant literature (Meyer 1994).
Teachers complained that they had to write long lesson plans justifying every minute of each lesson. According to these respondents, a lesson plan should not be so rigid, since teachers also need to have the flexibility to change a lesson when required. Teachers also said that they felt like they were "putting on a show" during their student teaching experience on those occasions when a seminar instructor observed their lessons. In many cases, teachers confessed that they attempted to conduct the lessons according to the instructor's preferences in order to receive a favorable evaluation. Otherwise, teachers felt they would have received lower grades, which could have significantly reduced their job prospects. In fact, the overall grade from student teaching is the primary criterion used in hiring new teachers when there is a surplus.
Seminar instructors. Seminar instructors are also teachers, normally with several years of teaching experience. Instructors teach courses for student teachers once a week, during which they discuss methodological and subject-related issues pertinent to the particular school level and subject. They evaluate student teachers' performance during the seminars and also travel to schools to observe, discuss, and evaluate student teachers' performance.
During interviews, teachers said that the quality of their student teaching experience largely depended on the supervising seminar instructors. One Gymnasium teacher compared two of his instructors:
I was lucky to have a seminar instructor in math who was also an excellent teacher. He taught me how to convey complicated mathematical facts to students. In contrast, my trainer in physics was not knowledgeable — he learned from us. I think whether you learn a lot during student teaching all depends on the trainer.
The mentor teacher. In school, each student teacher is assigned by the principal to one or more mentors, usually full-time teachers with many years of experience who volunteer to supervise student teachers. Mentors are only chosen from among those teachers who volunteer. If a student teacher is not content with her or his mentor, she or he may approach other teachers in the school and ask them to serve as a mentor. Provided that the teacher and principal agree, the student may subsequently switch to the new mentor. The mentor's role is to assist student teachers with teaching-related questions, while providing student teachers with opportunities to observe and teach in their classes. Mentor teachers do not receive extra compensation, nor do they normally receive a reduction in their teaching load. In fact, teachers often are hesitant to take on new student teachers, because they may be asked by the school principal to teach as substitutes in other classes, while the student teacher remains in their home class. Many criticized this aspect of student teaching. According to respondents, student teachers should not be required to act as substitute teachers, but rather should join their mentor in team teaching so that they can learn from each other, experiment with different methods, and provide additional help for those students who need it.
Mentors are very often ill-prepared for assisting student teachers. In some cases, seminar instructors invite the mentors of their student teachers to attend the seminar and discuss new approaches in teaching methodology. In general, student teachers are faced with the dilemma of having to please the seminar instructor and the mentor teacher at the same time, a feat made difficult by the fact that these two teachers often have very different attitudes toward teaching and different preferences concerning how a lesson should be organized and conducted.
From the mentor's point of view, communication between the student teacher and the mentor is often inadequate. Mentor teachers who were interviewed stressed that a lack of time was the most frequent reason for poor communication. A teacher who had mentored many student teachers and had just begun serving as a seminar instructor voiced this criticism:
The assigned mentor usually does not have the time really to assist the student teacher. There is not enough time for the mentor and student teacher to coordinate their lesson plans and to talk about teaching styles and the students' behavior. It is crucial that the mentor and student teacher communicate with each other. There needs to be time set aside for reflecting upon lessons which have just been taught. Since I also work as a seminar instructor, I listen to student teachers' complaints. It seems the main problem is a time problem.
In sum, even though teachers criticized their student teaching, they generally regarded student teaching as being the most useful phase of their training in preparing them for their first teaching position. Suggestions for improving the student teaching experience included expanding the number of hours per week spent in the classroom and providing better training for seminar instructors, especially in how to give productive feedback to student teachers.
-###-
[Chapter 5 (Part 3 of 4)]