A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

Chapter 5

Teachers and the Teaching Profession
in Germany

By: Ute E. Milotich

At 7:45 a.m. the bell rings and Frau Müller heads quickly to her first eighth-grade math class. In the hallway she says hello to her students and asks them to hurry to the classroom. Frau Müller shuts the classroom door, takes her books out of her heavy briefcase and says "Guten Morgen." She then asks the students to tell her who is absent today, writes the names of the absentees in the class book, and checks the homework assignment from the previous day. The current math topic is one-variable algebraic equations. Frau Müller has brought in her telephone bill, and she has the students work in groups to calculate the per-minute cost of various phone calls. In the last 10 minutes of the lesson, students explain their findings to the class with the assistance of Frau Müller. Shortly before the bell rings, Frau Müller writes the homework assignment for tomorrow on the board. The bell rings, and while the students copy the assignment into an extra notebook for homework, Frau Müller notes the topic of today's lesson and the homework assignment in the class book. The students remain in the classroom and wait for the next teacher, while Frau Müller moves quickly down the hall to teach a ninth-grade physics class. There are 5 minutes between the two class periods. The ninth-graders are already waiting in the hallway for Frau Müller to unlock the physics classroom.

Shortly before 9:20 a.m., when the second class ends, students murmur and rustle their papers, and Frau Müller writes faster on the chalkboard. As the ninth-graders finish writing down the assignment, the noise in the classroom rises, and they pull out their bread and cheese for a snack, drifting out to the school courtyard for a 15-minute break. Frau Müller finishes writing in the class book for the ninth-grade class and talks briefly to two students who didn't complete their homework assignment. She then gathers her classroom material and takes everything with her to the teachers' lounge.

In the teachers' lounge, Frau Müller puts her things on a long table and gets her mug from the shelf above the sink in the corner. Several teachers are gathered near the coffee machine, and she talks to Frau Sommer, the class teacher for the ninth-grade physics class that Frau Müller just taught. Frau Müller tells her colleague that one student, Andreas, often comes late and disrupts class. While they talk, the principal enters the teachers' lounge, pours himself a cup of coffee, and reminds his colleagues of the upcoming project week. As the break comes to an end, Frau Müller takes some books out of her locker and hurries to teach another eighth-grade math class. Afterwards, Frau Müller has one free period during which she makes phone calls to parents and runs small errands. She drops letters off at the nearby post office and buys bread from the local bakery.

After returning to school at 11:10 a.m., Frau Müller supervises the school yard during the second 15-minute break. She teaches two more math classes until school ends at 1:00 p.m. Before leaving school at 1:20 p.m., she walks again to the teachers' lounge where she leaves books in her locker, makes a few photocopies, and checks her mailbox. By the time she arrives home, her two children have already returned from the Gymnasium. She quickly prepares the main meal of the day. Frau Müller and her children sit down to eat at 1:45 p.m.. Her husband does not join the family today because he is attending a monthly conference concerning new developments in his subject area. Today's topic is the reform movement in German orthography. Leaving her children to clean up after the meal, Frau Müller lies down for a short rest before starting on the housework. Her husband returns from school at 4:30 p.m. After a light dinner with her family at 7:00 p.m., Frau Müller spends 1.5 hours in her office at home preparing lessons for the next day.

Introduction

Teachers are central players in any educational system, and a closer examination of their training and their working lives provides important insight into the daily workings of the system as a whole. This study began with some basic questions: Who teaches, how are they trained, what are their thoughts on education, and what is teaching like in Germany? The literature provided initial answers to many of these questions. Through the case study, we were able to gain insight into the daily workings of teachers' lives by talking with the teachers themselves.

Methodology

During the fall of 1994, researchers conducted interviews with teachers and administrators at three sites in Germany. Researchers also observed in classrooms, on school premises, and in everyday settings. All interviews were conducted in German, tape recorded, and later transcribed and translated into English for storage and analysis.

At the primary site, Central City, and at a secondary site, East City, I conducted all of the interviews and made the observations pertaining to the topic of teachers' preparation and teachers' work lives, except for a few interviews at a Berufliches Gymnasuim, which were conducted by a German research assistant. Interviews and observations from South City were collected by William Foraker. All the data from the secondary sites pertaining to this topic were included in the analysis and are reflected in this chapter.

In pursuit of information on teachers' preparation and teachers' work lives in the German school system, we conducted 9 interviews at academic high schools, 13 at vocational high schools, 28 at middle schools, and 18 at elementary schools. Of the total interviews pertaining to this topic, approximately 24 were held in East City and 6 in South City. In addition, approximately 35 classroom and general observations were included in the data analysis. Printed information obtained from schools, career-counseling centers, state ministries of education and their affiliated research institutes, and the Conference of Ministers of Education was also integrated into research findings in this chapter.

In most cases, interviews were conducted with teachers whose classrooms we observed. They took place after school or during teachers' free periods. Since most teachers do not have their own office, it was often necessary to search for a quiet space where a confidential interview could be held. Many were at first skeptical and sometimes resentful of the research. A few made it clear that they had been "volunteered" by the principal and wanted to get through the interview as quickly as possible by providing only brief answers to questions. At the Gymnasien and vocational schools, teachers were especially critical of the study and research methodology. However, once the ice was broken, teachers were forthcoming in their answers and did not hesitate to express their opinions—negative or positive—on students, colleagues, and the state (or lack) of school equipment. Towards the end of each interview, when teachers were asked whether the interview was also fruitful for them, many pointed out that it was helpful for them to reflect upon their profession and expressed an interest in learning about the outcome of the study.

Math and science teachers whose classrooms were observed said that they were not putting on a show lesson for the interviewer, emphasizing that what was being observed was normal classroom instruction and interaction. In addition to classroom observation, teachers were observed throughout the school day, during interactions with colleagues in the teachers' lounge and in conferences, and accompanied while they supervised students in the schoolyard during the long break between classes. Teachers were often selected on the basis of availability on the particular day we were visiting and represented a range of engagement from energetic to indifferent.

Research Goals

Interviews were organized around four major themes: teachers' personal characteristics, teacher training and professional development, the profession of teaching, and teachers' working conditions. Under teachers' personal characteristics, questions examined demographics, teachers' motives for choosing their profession, their thoughts on the qualities that make a good teacher, and general attitudes on education. Topics concerning teacher training and professional development included university admission requirements, university studies, and student teaching. In the course of discussing these topics, teachers also offered thoughts on and criticisms of their training. The profession of teaching in Germany was also examined for beginning and experienced teachers. Topics included hiring and advancement procedures, compensation, social status, and teachers' unions, taking special account of the role of teacher as civil servant. Lastly, teachers' working conditions were investigated, including time use and work load, interaction with colleagues, students and parents, school and classroom organization, and stress factors on the job. We paid special attention to the teaching of mathematics and science in the schools we visited.

It was of special interest to see firsthand how the school system and teacher training in the "old states" (former West Germany) have been received and implemented in the five new states since unification in 1989. In the East, change is the key word — not only in schools but in East City itself. One Grundschule we visited was formerly a polytechnical school in East Germany. These schools served all children from grade 1 through 10, without formal tracking. With the exception of one Gymnasium, researchers were received in East City with more interest than in other cities. Teachers were forthcoming during the interviews, especially at the Grundschule and at the combined Haupt/ Realschule. Principals of these two schools spent a great deal of time comparing the old and new school systems. They both expressed their dissatisfaction with the tracked school system after fourth grade, which was adopted after unification in 1990.

Teachers' Personal Characteristics

Demographics

According to recent statistics (see table 1), over 40 percent of teachers employed in Germany at Grund/Hauptschulen, Realschulen, and Gymnasien in 1990 were between the ages of 35 and 45, another 15 percent were between the ages of 45 and 55, and fewer than 20 percent were under the age of 35. Some regard the current age demographics of teachers at German schools as a problem. They would prefer a mix of young and old teachers, because students like to have young teachers with whom they can relate. At one Gymnasium, for example, all the teachers were over 50, and most had been at that particular school for about 20 years. Teachers there stressed that it will be a problem for the school when the current teachers retire at the age of 60 and a wave of new teachers takes over .

Table 1 — Age of teachers employed in Germany at Grundschule/Hauptschulen, Realschulen, and Gymnasien in 1975 and 1990

Although the age of the teachers interviewed varied from 28 to 62, the average was 43 years. Due to widespread hiring freezes in the 1980's, a large majority of teachers in the old states are in their forties and fifties. The majority of teachers interviewed fit the national profile of middle- to late-middle-aged. They completed their university training and student teaching during the 1970's and have been teaching an average of 18 years. Moreover, many have taught at the same school for most, if not all, of their careers. A teacher at a Gymnasium said that most teachers stay at the same school unless they are promoted to assistant principal or principal and required to transfer to another school. A Haupt/Realschule teacher who has taught at several schools criticized the immobility of teachers throughout their careers:

I think that teachers should rotate from school to school after a certain period of time, so that they get to know other teachers and a different school environment from which they can learn a lot. However, most teachers would not support this idea, since they do not want to leave their familiar environment.

Overall, there were more male teachers interviewed (56 percent) than female teachers (44 percent), although as of 1992, 58 percent of the teachers in Germany were female. The high percentage of male teachers interviewed may be partly explained by the lower number of female teachers in secondary schools; in 1992, women made up only 43 percent of Gymnasium teachers, as opposed to 72 percent of Grundschule teachers (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Wissenschaft [BMBW] 1993). Differences were also observed in the ratio of men to women in the old and new states. For example, there were more female math and science teachers at the combined Haupt/Realschule and Gymnasium in the new states than there were at schools visited in the old states. In the combined Haupt/Realschule in East City, there were only 2 male teachers out of a total of 24. In fact, female teachers at the Gymnasium in East City said that when they travel to their partner school in one of the old states, the mostly male teachers are surprised to meet so many young female math and science teachers. In the eastern states, women made up 66 percent of all Gymnasium teachers in 1992, as compared to 38 percent of Gymnasium teachers in western states in the same year (BMBW 1993).

According to respondents, there are two major reasons for the high percentage of female teachers in secondary schools in the new states. First, more women than men traditionally chose the teaching profession in former East Germany. Secondly, at the combined Haupt/Realschule we visited, most male teachers seized the opportunity 2 years ago and applied to teach at the newly opened Gymnasium; more male than female teachers were accepted at the Gymnasium and transferred there.

Teaching was often the first choice for a profession by women. Most of the men said that they previously studied a different field, such as economics or law, or sometimes even had completed an advanced degree in mathematics or physics before they decided to become teachers because of good job prospects and job security. Other research on teachers in Germany has also reported that teaching is often regarded as a second-choice profession (Schwänke 1988).

Motives for Becoming a Teacher

Teachers responded with some degree of hesitation when asked about the motives that drive people to become teachers. However, teachers generally named the following reasons for choosing their profession: a desire to work with children or adolescents, flexible working hours and long vacations, and the attraction of job security as a civil servant. Grundschule teachers, in particular, emphasized that they like to work with children and help shape children's outlook on life. Others reported being attracted to teaching at the Grundschule level because they would rather concentrate on creating a warm and inspiring classroom atmosphere than teaching specific subjects, as would be the case if they taught the upper grades at secondary schools. Moreover, teachers said they believed that students at the Grundschule level (6-10 years of age) were easy to motivate, in contrast to older students. Grundschule teachers also often said that they chose their profession because they wanted to combine a career with having a family. Some Grundschule teachers previously worked in different professions before becoming teachers. They said that a primary reason for starting over again in teaching was the fact that they could no longer juggle family and career in their previous jobs.

Teachers also stressed that they were attracted to the teaching profession because they believed teaching would be interesting and challenging; teachers must continually deal with different student personalities and situations. Many also emphasized that they had an academic interest in their major subjects and enjoyed conveying knowledge to students.

The flexibility of working hours was especially attractive to teachers; they are able to decide for themselves when and how much time they should devote to preparing lessons or correcting tests. Teachers at vocational schools and Gymnasien who previously worked in different professions were quick to point out the benefits of a teacher's schedule. For these teachers, interaction with students as well as flexible working hours were the main advantages of the teaching profession over other vocations, such as working in business management. In addition, vocational school teachers said that they were attracted to teaching by campaigns and incentives aimed at recruiting qualified people from industry into teaching.

Job security also served as a strong motivating factor for choosing teaching as a profession. A female teacher in her mid-forties at a Haupt and Realschule explained it this way:

People who become teachers have a need for security. Imagine, as a teacher one is a civil servant and can calculate the exact salary when one turns 55. Teachers can plan their whole professional life in advance. They don't have to risk anything.

The prospect of job security also lured many Gymnasium teachers away from an intended career at a university into teaching younger students. The long, uncertain path to obtaining tenure as a university professor in Germany, with its "second dissertation" (Habilitation), deterred many from continuing in academia. It was especially common for male secondary school teachers to say they chose a teaching career as an alternative to teaching at a university.

Personal reasons guide teachers into their careers as well. Some female teachers said that they were encouraged by their fathers, who were civil servants and placed a high value on job security. In other cases, the major influence in deciding on a teaching career was the teacher's own experience as a secondary school student. For example, some chose to become a Haupt and Realschule teacher rather than a Gymnasium teacher because as students they had bad experiences with teachers at the Gymnasium. However, some chose to teach at the Haupt and Realschule because they did not want to spend the time necessary to become a Gymnasium teacher, or because they did not want to study and teach academic subjects at a high level.

Overall, the teachers interviewed chose the teaching profession more because they were attracted to the nature of the work than because of factors such as salary or social status. Women, especially those who were Grundschule teachers, often entered the profession because of a desire to combine career and family. Whereas at secondary schools, teaching was often women's first choice for a career, female Grundschule teachers often became teachers after working in a different profession. Male teachers, on the other hand, often chose the profession as an alternative to a career in law, medicine, or industry because of job security and fewer years of preparatory study.

Qualities That Make a Good Teacher

In the area of teachers' personal characteristics, the question about what qualities make a good mathematics or science teacher turned out to be the most interesting and challenging question. Most suggested that the personal characteristics that make a good math and science teacher are the same as those necessary to be a good teacher in any subject. They also remarked that it takes a certain type of personality to be a good teacher; for example, teachers must have patience, empathy, and understanding for students. Grundschule teachers were especially likely to express this belief:

A good teacher has open ears and a warm heart for children's concerns. A good teacher needs to be able to put herself or himself into kids' shoes; he or she is psychologically trained and knows how kids learn. He or she should be open-minded, open to new ideas which are suggested by colleagues and students. . . . and should always be interested in broadening his or her horizons. (Female Grundschule teacher)

Secondary school teachers said that a good teacher needs to be flexible but consistent in many matters and must be able to respond quickly to new situations. A teacher should be able to joke with students, but at the same time set limits. Fairness was often mentioned as an important quality. For example, if students complain that the timing of an examination is not fair, the teacher should reconsider her or his decision. Similarly, good teachers have to be able to admit their mistakes in front of the class. Teachers at a combined Haupt/Realschule stressed that, above all, it is crucial for teachers to be human and not to present themselves as an "all-knowing God." In particular, math teachers said they needed to demonstrate extra patience and concern in order to avoid conveying this image to their students:

Math teachers often have a hard time understanding why a student has difficulty with a math problem. It seems logical and trivial to us teachers. A good teacher tries to explain a math problem in different ways because he or she anticipates problems that students might have. (Female teacher)

All secondary school teachers stressed that they must be knowledgeable in the subjects that they teach and must continuously update this knowledge. Most important, they said, the teacher should be able to convey a complicated idea to students in a clear manner. They also voiced other requisites for a good teacher. Teachers need to be able to explain solutions to problems, while at the same time making the logic behind the solutions transparent to students, so that they can solve similar problems on their own. A good Grundschule teacher clearly has the necessary subject knowledge in math, but also knows how to convey this information to students in a clear manner. A mistake or omission during an explanation of a complex problem can confuse and upset students, leading to a lack of motivation for the rest of the lesson. They suggested that good Grundschule teachers often use material things, such as cookies or wooden blocks, to provide students with opportunities to experiment and solve the problem on their own. Moreover, the teacher tries to analyze and reconstruct students' mistakes to appreciate their difficulties and gain an understanding of different ways to solve a math problem. Grundschule teachers also stressed the importance of offering several activities during the 45-minute period to satisfy children's need for variety and movement.

Teachers at all school types mentioned the importance of being able to visualize math problems and show connections to the real world, explaining that most students have better comprehension when content is presented in a form relevant to their lives. Haupt and Realschule teachers doubly emphasized that their students, in contrast to Gymnasium students, need to have real-life examples in order to concentrate on a given task. Gymnasium teachers, on the other hand, thought that while understanding practical applications is important for motivating students in the 5th to 10th grades, it is no longer necessary from 11th through 13th grades at Gymnasium.

Most Haupt and Realschule teachers emphasized that at the Haupt and Realschule, teaching the subject always comes second to dealing with students as individuals, understanding their interests and concerns and listening to their problems. For example, a good teacher should be able to change a lesson plan if students have an immediate need to talk about a particular issue or interest. Because personal problems become an area of increasing concern when students go through puberty, good teachers should have the foresight to offer help and assistance even to students who want to appear cool and independent and do not ask for it.

In addition, teachers need to have "strong nerves" and "inner stability" in school. Many teachers said that students are difficult in class. As a male physics teacher at a Gesamtschule said, "A good teacher has to learn to deal with the frustration and aggression of his students, but at the same time also has to learn to control and deal with his frustrations with students."

One additional qualification for being a good teacher was mentioned by teachers at the vocational school. Due to the practical nature of the curriculum at these schools, many felt it was important to keep abreast of developments in business and industry that will affect their students in their future careers. Teachers at the vocational school said they need to have "both feet on the ground" and should teach their students "practical communication skills which are valued by the world of business." Many felt that vocational school teachers should gain practical experience before becoming teachers. In addition, they should maintain contacts with the world of employment. In fact, some teachers do so by working for a company during the summer break.

Overall, in discussing factors, which distinguish a good teacher, teachers first mentioned characteristics such as empathy, flexibility, consistency, fairness, and inner stability, and secondly mentioned the importance of knowledge of particular subject matter and of teaching methodology. According to most teachers, the traits, skills and knowledge necessary for good teaching can be acquired, and this is seen as an ongoing process. As one teacher commented:

I do not think that some people are born to be good teachers. Instead I think that teachers have to like people, and be willing to learn and improve effective teaching techniques. (Female Hauptschule and Realschule teacher)

This willingness to learn and an openness to new ideas were common themes. Some teachers, in talking about how such learning occurred, referred to journals that they read regularly. Science teachers, in particular, talked about the importance of keeping current with the subject matter. A male in his late forties commented:

A teacher, especially a science teacher, needs always to be up to date on the latest scientific knowledge. I subscribe to a magazine called Chemistry and go to in-service training.

Reading periodicals designed for more general teacher audiences was also mentioned, and two periodicals in particular seemed to be available to many Grundschule teachers, one on current pedagogical issues and another that offers examples of lesson units with accompanying worksheets.

In general, teachers seem to expect that they will continue to grow and learn on the job and only rarely did any espouse the belief that individuals are born good teachers. As one Gymnasium teacher commented: "To be a teacher is a matter of innate talent. Whoever does not have the talent can learn many things. . . but not everything." Teaching appears to be viewed as a profession in which an openness and willingness to learn is a critical part of success.

Views on the Purpose of Education

Finally, in regard to personal characteristics, we questioned teachers about what they thought was the purpose of education. Whereas secondary school teachers agreed that the purpose of education is to provide students with a broad base of knowledge, in other words, a good general education, the responses of Grundschule teachers varied widely. Regarding the purpose of education, secondary school teachers often referred to the published "mission statement" of their school. With the exception of Gymnasium teachers, secondary school teachers based their definition of a general education on the knowledge and skills needed to help students prepare for their future careers. Grundschule teachers, in contrast, were more likely to emphasize the social aspects of education, in other words, the need to teach students to learn and work both independently and with others. This may be a reflection of the fact that the official guidelines for Grundschule education stress the importance of promoting children's intellectual and social development (Kultusminister des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen 1985).

According to vocational school teachers, one of the teacher's primary tasks is to help students gain needed communication skills and acquire a solid understanding of how businesses are organized. In addition, students need to develop critical thinking skills. During apprenticeships, students are too involved in their daily work to have much of an opportunity to glance beyond their own small world. Some teachers further added that students should be able to profit from their school experiences not only in their future jobs but also in the way they view the world and how they see themselves as human beings.

In accordance with the traditional charter of the Gymnasium, that is, preparing students for academic professions, teachers there emphasized the need to convey knowledge and skills for successful university study. Teachers at the berufliches Gymnasium felt that students should receive a practical background in business and economics in addition to a general education. Although the central purpose of the Gymnasium is academic, Gymnasium teachers expressed concern that the Gymnasium should also foster the social and individual development of students. One of the teachers interviewed put it this way:

I think that the notion of Gymnasium teachers who just teach their subjects has to change. We need to help students find their way in this complex society and teach them coping strategies.

The traditional difference in the purpose of education between Grundschule and the Gymnasium was summarized by a male teacher in his early fifties:

The Grundschule teacher understands himself or herself in the sense of a 'socializer,' as the one who integrates the young person into society, whereas the Gymnasium teacher understands himself or herself as the transmitter or conveyor of the higher sciences. The Gymnasium teacher does not understand his or her role as ensuring that the students will learn something. He or she merely provides the students with opportunities to learn. This is the old Humboldt educational ideal: a broad offering of education from which the student finally recognizes the character of his or her own abilities and talents.

[Chapter 4 (Part 3 of 3)]

[Chapter 5 (Part 2 of 4)]