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As noted previously, many of the parents and teachers with whom we spoke felt that home environment and family support had a direct influence on a student's ability to achieve. Traditional values of family life included a mother who stayed home for her children rather than working outside the home. Although many people recognized this option was not economically feasible for some families, they also noted that there were few after-school activities for children of working couples. Many teachers suggested that when both parents worked outside the home, young children would come home after school let out at mid-day to empty households and spend all their time in front of the television. Teachers felt strongly that these children suffered from a lack of motor skills and a lack of concentration, which affected their work in school. In addition, they said that these students often would not receive assistance with or supervision of their homework.
Conditions such as these were seen as prevalent in lower-income working class neighborhoods where dual-income families were much more common. This seemed to be confirmed by our discussions with parents of different socioeconomic groups. While dual job-dual income households were common in the working-class neighborhoods, it was still much more likely among middle-class families that the mother would stay home for her children rather than work. If she did work, it was usually at a part-time job. A statement from a teacher at the Hauptschule we visited in the lower socioeconomic neighborhood of a major industrial city summed up much of what we were told by other Hauptschule teachers:
Today the parents expect the schools to do everything. . .Most of the parents both work and they have very high expectations for their kids, but they do not have the time or make the effort to make it happen.
Parental literacy was another factor, which was often mentioned as contributing to children's achievement difficulties. Literacy problems were not limited to foreigners. However, many teachers noted that children living in households where German was not spoken started school at a disadvantage and, even if they spoke German when they came to school, the range of their German vocabulary and understanding of their vocabulary was usually restricted.
Language requirements created a time-use issue for foreign students at all school forms, but particularly for students in the Grundschule and the Hauptschule. Students who were seen as having deficient German language skills were often recommended to after-school supplemental language classes. In addition, some states require foreign students to take language classes in their mother tongue. These classes are also offered in the afternoons following the regular school day. The combination of these supplemental courses can add up to more than 4 hours a week of additional class time. Teachers often noted that this resulted in a longer school day for these children and that it sometimes interfered with their ability to complete their homework. In addition, as students got older their other out-of-school interests sometimes interfered with their voluntary attendance at the supplemental German language classes.
Hauptschulen were often described as having poor reputations and large foreign student populations. From our observations, there is no doubt that a large percentage of the foreign students are tracked to the Hauptschule. Enrollment statistics from 1991 also support our observation and interview data. Hauptschulen enroll a larger percentage of the foreign student population than the Gesamtschulen, the Realschulen, or the Gymnasien. Foreign students made up 11.2 percent of the entire student population in 1991. However, they made up 20 percent of all students enrolled in Hauptschule in 1991, 12.9 percent of all students enrolled in Gesamtschule, 8.1 percent of all students enrolled in Realschule, and 5.1 percent of all students enrolled in Gymnasium (Arbeitsgruppe Bildungsbericht am Max-Planck-Institut [MPI] 1994). Of course, in some neighborhoods the foreign student population was much higher than in others, and in Hauptschule located in these neighborhoods the foreign student population was also higher than average.
Parental level of education was described as playing a very large role in the expectations parents held for their own children's education. Parents and teachers said that few parents who attended a Realschule or Gymnasium want their child to go to the Hauptschule unless it is absolutely necessary. Instead, they strive to enroll their children in a school form, which leads to one of the higher certificates and they provide the support and encouragement to make this a realistic goal. Also, an increasing percentage of foreign students are beginning to track into the Realschule and the Gymnasium as second- and third-generation foreign students enter the school system with greater fluency in German, and as familiarity with Germany and its education system leads their parents to realize that a higher-level certificate will be helpful to their children in obtaining a better job and attaining better economic opportunities. Teachers at the Hauptschule indicated that the foreign students were often more motivated than the German students at the Hauptschule.
Social prestige was also believed to be a factor involved in decisions about tracking for some parents, particularly when it came to tracking students to the Gymnasium. This appeared even more accentuated in the former East German state, since students who did not enter the Gymnasium went to the combined Haupt/Realschule. However, throughout most of Germany, many parents saw the Realschule an acceptable alternative to the Gymnasium, because it provided all of the opportunities for further education which were available to Gymnasium students without the intense academic environment.
A further distinction was made by a few individuals. Teachers at the classical language Gymnasium said that these Gymnasien tended to attract a more select group of students both in terms of intellectual interests and family background. The parents themselves had often attended a Gymnasium, which required Latin as the first language and were in a position to provide assistance with Latin. They also stated that families who had not themselves attended a Gymnasium would generally send their children to the modern languages Gymnasium, since English was seen as a more useful language to learn from the beginning.
Statistics bear out what parents and teachers told us about the influence of the level of parental education on the choice of a school form for their children. Parents with Realschule certificates enroll their children primarily in the Realschule or Gymnasium; parents who have their Abitur enroll their children more frequently in a Gymnasium. Statistics from 1989, for instance, show that 7.6 percent of 13- and 14-year-old students at the Hauptschule and 67.1 percent of the same age group attending Gymnasium came from families whose head of household worked as an employee and had an Abitur. Among German parents who worked as laborers without a vocation, the figures are almost exactly reversed (MPI 1994).
As was noted earlier, there is some pressure to strive for a higher socioeconomic status across all levels of society, and the general trend is for parents to enroll their children in school forms which open more doors to further education or higher levels of vocational training. Teachers often complained that this upward pressure had taken a layer of top performers from the Realschule, and therefore the average performance level was lower at these schools than it used to be. Teachers also felt that the positive influence these stronger students once had on their classmates as both role models and peer tutors was now missing. The same general comments were made about how this trend toward upward mobility has influenced students at the Hauptschule.
Although there is a movement toward the integration of students with disabilities into the regular public school system, few students with disabilities currently attend the regular public schools. Among the teachers we interviewed, only the Grundschule teachers and one Hauptschule teacher spoke of having a small number (one or two) of disabled students in their classes. Disabled students who were integrated into the Grundschulen we visited were usually students described as dyslexic, learning disabled, or behaviorally disabled. The teachers noted that they try to keep these students at the Grundschule and have them repeat a year if necessary in order that the child can "at least graduate from the Grundschule." A few teachers spoke of the extra burden which the classroom teacher faces when trying to integrate these students, since they have difficulty keeping up with the course work. However, one teacher said that the other children in the class can profit from the presence of a disabled child. "This particular child may know something that the others do not know. The children learn tolerance."
Parents we spoke to were also very supportive of efforts toward integration of children with disabilities. Several said that while there were few disabled students that attend the regular public school system, they approve of integration and felt that it would be good for their children to learn "from the very beginning" how to interact socially with children with disabilities.
A limited amount of in-class instructional support is provided to teachers who have integrated children with learning or behavioral disabilities into their classroom. The state provides funding for a specially trained teacher, who joins the class for approximately 5 hours a week and works on an individual basis with the integrated child. Although the laws in some states also allow children with physical disabilities to be integrated into the regular public school system, teachers and students we spoke to all noted that there were no physically disabled students currently enrolled in their schools. The one exception to this was a student at one of the Berufsschule who used a wheelchair. Most of the regular public schools do not have adequate facilities for children with physical disabilities. When this issue was discussed, the teachers pointed out that Sonderschulen are designed specifically for the special physical needs of children with disabilities.
The laws governing the procedure by which a child is assigned Sonderschule status are similar but not identical among the states and may also vary depending on the disability. Generally, children are recommended for consideration for a Sonderschule by their parents or guardians or by the public school they are attending. At this point, the child usually undergoes a series of tests including an assessment by an instructor of the Sonderschule to determine "the level of ability on which the child can learn, think and understand," a medical test, and perhaps an examination by a school psychologist. Following these tests, and based on their results, the school superintendent consults with the parents or guardians and makes the decision regarding attendance at either the Sonderschule or the Grundschule.
The parents and teachers in the regular public schools were familiar with the limited integration of students with disabilities within these schools, but had limited knowledge of the Sonderschulen. We were unable to visit Sonderschulen, but information is available from published reports.
Several basic types of Sonderschulen exist in Germany, although they may vary somewhat across states. They include schools for the slow learner, behaviorally disordered, mentally disabled, physically disabled, speech disabled, hearing disabled, and sight disabled. Approximately 18 percent of the Sonderschulen are privately run, and most of those specialize in teaching the sensory impaired (KMK 1993). The majority of Sonderschulen are half-day schools. Of the total school population, approximately 4 percent are enrolled in Sonderschulen. Over half of these are in schools for the learning disabled (MPI 1994). Only 0.15 percent of all students attend Sonderschulen for behavioral problems (MPI 1994). The Sonderschule for learning disabled students is somewhat successful in its goals of assimilation, as one in eight children reenter regular schools after visiting the Sonderschule, and others complete their Hauptschule certificate at the Sonderschule itself (MPI 1994). Unfortunately, because of the general economic hardship and tight labor market which currently exists in Germany, children with learning disabilities often have slim chances of obtaining an apprenticeship.
Children with physical disabilities have a better chance of completing their education. Most sensory-impaired children complete the requirements for the Hauptschule certificate, and many students who have impairments in vision or hearing complete the requirements for the Realschule certificate or the Abitur at Sonderschulen for the sensory impaired (MPI 1994). Although teachers of the regular public schools we visited in Germany said they were unaware of any sensory-impaired students in their school, one school employed a teacher who was blind.
There are no institutionally organized programs at the Grundschule level which promote gifted students in their first 4 years of schooling. Teachers and parents said that efforts to promote gifted students were left up to the individual classroom teachers. Some teachers said they gave the gifted children in their class extra exercises or a little additional homework, but there were no school policies or guidelines from the state which dictated what they must do. Teachers believed that all students' talents and abilities should be strengthened and encouraged, but children's education should include learning to be a part of a group and learning to help one another, as well as learning academic subject matter. Grundschule was also supposed to be an enjoyable experience. Teachers and parents believed that students who were more academically able would be promoted to a more demanding school soon enough, and there was no need to place extra strain on them at this level.
The traditional tripartite education system, which begins at the fifth grade, is designed to promote the most talented students into the most challenging school form, the Gymnasium. The curriculum, standards of performance, and academic orientation of instruction in the Gymnasium are meant to challenge the best and brightest. And although a range of abilities was also seen to exist with in the Gymnasien, the high standard for entrance ensures that the overall level of ability of students enrolled in Gymnasien is high.
Most students said that gifted students have the opportunity to excel particularly within the Leistungskurse offered in grades 12 and 13, because these courses are more concentrated and at an even higher level than the regular Gymnasium courses.
It was often explained that special programs do not exist for gifted students at the Gymnasium, since the academically oriented classes are already very rigorous. However, the system does provide another means of promotion for particularly gifted students. Although it is not common, teachers and students stated that gifted students are occasionally allowed to skip a grade. One teacher knew of a student who had been allowed to skip the 5th grade, and a student noted that one of his classmates had been allowed to skip the 11th grade. Because of the limited number of individuals in our study who were aware of such incidences, we cannot state whether there are some grades which are easier to skip or whether the grade at which a student skips ahead is strictly dependent on the particular student in question.
Although the schools themselves did not have programs or classes designed specifically for gifted students, a few extracurricular activities were sometimes available through the schools. In particular, teachers and students said that a few limited opportunities, such as academic competitions and out-of-school seminars and research opportunities, were available to especially talented students. Within the limits of our study, we were unable to determine the frequency of their occurrence, the number of students involved in these activities, and variations across the states. However, we were told that student participation in these activities was based on academic performance at the Gymnasium and dependent on teacher recommendations.
Not surprisingly, when teachers at Realschulen and Hauptschulen were asked about programs or resources for gifted students, the typical response was that there are no special classes or programs at these schools. The best and brightest students do not attend the Realschulen or the Hauptschulen, because in most instances they have been channeled to the Gymnasium. Rare exceptions were noted in the case of Muslim female students who sometimes are not tracked to the Gymnasium because their parents do not feel it is necessary or appropriate for a woman to obtain the Abitur.
In states where Gesamtschulen exist, parents who believe in the goals and philosophy of this school form may decide to send their gifted child to a Gesamtschule rather than a Gymnasium, even though Gesamtschulen enroll only a small percentage of the student population at the lower secondary level. As mentioned earlier, the Gesamtschule offers A-, B-, and C-level courses. A level courses are the most demanding of the three levels. Top performing students, including gifted students, enroll in A-level courses through the 10th grade, at which point they either transfer to a traditional Gymnasium or possibly continue into an Oberstufe connected to the Gesamtschule to complete their studies for the Abitur.
Clearly, gifted students are provided for within the tripartite system. The Gymnasium is a rigorous and competitive school, which prepares students for intellectual life and study at the university. As children leave the Grundschule, parents try to choose a Gymnasium which they feel is appropriate for their child. In urban areas parents can choose from among the best of the various Gymnasium for their gifted children. Of course, Gymnasien with strong traditions of excellence provide an even greater opportunity for gifted students to compete and excel.
Several aspects of the German education system are fundamental to any discussion of the ways in which individual differences in ability are dealt with within the German schools. First, the education system across states is relatively uniform. Although the states set the education policy and are the primary source of funding for elementary and secondary education, representatives of the states work together to assure a high level of standardization and comparability in educational outcomes. Second, tracking at the secondary level is rooted in the assumption that people have different capabilities, that these capabilities can be assessed and an appropriately tailored education provided if students of differing levels of ability are segregated into separate school forms, and teachers can instruct groups of students who are homogenous in level of ability. Third, although students are tracked at an early age, there is some flexibility in the system that allows for movement between school forms and many educational and vocational options exist. The different options lead to education or vocation programs, which upon successful completion lead to qualification for a particular profession.
The educational system has clearly stated goals and expectations for students at the different school forms, and teachers' instructional activities, lesson plans, and interactions with students reflect and support the goals and expectations of the school form in which they teach. They teach to a standard, which is meant to challenge students appropriately who have been assessed and tracked to a particular school form. The question of "fit" is always foremost in the mind of educators as well as parents. If students have been tracked to the appropriate school form and if they apply themselves, they will be able to perform at the level required by that school form, and the student is said to fit or be suited to that particular school form. Ideally, they will be challenged, but not over challenged to the point where school becomes too stressful and they lose their motivation because of their inability to perform up to the required level.
For students who have difficulty performing at the required level in the school form to which they have been tracked, there are two socially acceptable options: repeat a year or transfer to a less challenging school form. If a student's difficulties are moderate and appear to be surmountable, teachers will recommend that the student repeat the year. Because indicators of achievement, such as year-end subject grades and exit exams, are important for entrance into further educational and vocational programs, teachers, parents and students recognize the importance grade retention plays in allowing students a second chance to perform up to the required level. A second option exists in the form of school transfer. Many students see transfer to a less difficult school form as leading to the same opportunities (or at least the ones they are interested in) and choose to transfer to a school form in which they can achieve good grades.
One of the primary effects of this highly differentiated tracking system is that most students complete their secondary education between the ages of 14 and 19, depending on the school form into which they are tracked. Those that are enrolled in the Hauptschule and the Realschule (or combined Haupt/Realschule) complete their lower secondary education between the ages of 14 and 16, and those that pursue the Abitur at a Gymnasium or Berufliches Gymnasium usually complete their Abitur at 18 or 19. Approximately 30 to 40 percent of the student population studies for the Abitur, and the majority of these students continue their studies at a university. Therefore, educational and vocational choices for these students are deferred until their late teens and career advising for this group focuses heavily on the university system.
In contrast to students attending the Gymnasium, future educational and vocational opportunities become important considerations during the early adolescent years of students enrolled in the Hauptschule or Realschule. Career planning and advising begins as early as the seventh or eighth grade for these students. By the end of their 9th or 10th year of school, they are choosing an upper-secondary level vocational or educational path, which will lead to a lifelong profession. Only a small percentage of these students will go on to obtain the Abitur and enter a university. Despite this, mathematics and science courses are considered basic to a good general education and are required subjects for all of these students.
Although the differentiated system forces educational and vocational choices at a very early age for the majority of youth in Germany, it also works to prepare them for a profession. Upper-secondary vocational programs and technical education programs provide instruction specific to their chosen profession, often in combination with core academic subjects, and successful completion of one of these programs results in a certificate qualifying them for employment.
Social and economic pressures in German society are forcing some accommodations in the differentiated school system and in teaching methods, as students entering the school system in recent years have come from a broader range of cultural backgrounds and home environments. There has been an increase in the number of single parents of school age children as well as an increase in the number of families where both parents work outside the home. Teachers have indicated that an increasing number of students lack afternoon supervision as a result of these changes and that the corresponding lack of parental attention and homework assistance are affecting students' motivation, concentration skills, and their willingness to learn, even in the Grundschule. In addition, a large increase in the number of non-Germans living in Germany and attending the public schools has meant that teachers have encountered an increase in learning problems caused by language difficulties and cultural differences.
At the same time, recent economic conditions have led to changes in the perceived value of the various secondary school completion certificates, and this has led to a change in enrollment patterns. As minimum employment qualifications have risen for many jobs, parents' concerns about their children's prospects for future employment have led them to view the Abitur and the Realschule certificate as providing a greater variety of educational and vocational options. As a result, there have been more students tracking to Gymnasien and Realschulen and fewer tracking to Hauptschulen, and there has been a corresponding decline in the value and status of the Hauptschule certificate. Teachers stated that while the lowest performing students are remaining in the Hauptschule, the range of level of ability among students at both the Realschulen and the Gymnasien is becoming greater.
In recent years there has been a movement to integrate children with disabilities into Grundschulen. However, the majority of children with disabilities continue to be educated in Sonderschulen, which are specifically designed for students with behavioral, physical, or learning disabilities. Many of these students receive either the Hauptschule or Realschule certificate within the Sonderschulen system, and a smaller number continue on to study for the Abitur.
Children who are considered gifted are educated within the traditional school system but do not receive supplemental classes or opportunities. They are tracked into the Gymnasium, the most difficult of the three secondary-level schools and are thought to be challenged adequately within this school form. The variety of Gymnasium in large cities often offers these students an opportunity to select among the most academically rigorous schools.
Parents, teachers and students indicated that they are generally satisfied with the educational system and the opportunities it provides. The differentiated school system is seen as providing students with an education appropriate to their level of ability and allowing for some flexibility of movement and alternative school forms (in some states) for students who are late bloomers.
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[Chapter 4 The Role of School in German Adolescents' Lives (Part 1 of 3)]