A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

Chapter 3
Individual Differences and the German Education System
(Part 3 of 5)

The Influence of School Form on the Instructional Environment

Instruction and Instructional Support

The highly differentiated school forms which exist at the secondary level are designed to educate students who have been tracked into particular school types for education's which vary in their emphasis on liberal versus practical education. Not surprisingly, then, teachers and administrators agreed that their approach to teaching, their relationship with their students, and the level of the material presented in class are determined to a large degree by the school form in which they teach. Because of the differences in the level of ability between populations at these schools, we asked about

the perceived needs of the students at the different schools, the types of support schools and teachers provided to students who had difficulty meeting the standards at each of these schools, and the sources of support which were available to students outside of the school, through either community or private services.

Hauptschule. Although the Hauptschule is considered to be the easiest secondary school form, teachers at the Hauptschulen we visited frequently said that for many students at the Hauptschule school was not easy and the students' home environments were often not supportive of learning or school. As a result, Hauptschule teachers believed that to encourage student motivation to learn it was important for them to establish good relationships with their students. One teacher put it this way:

Many of the students are in very difficult situations. Here the main thing is to build a relationship with the student. Because if the students notice that someone cares about how they are doing, then they become willing to learn. A closer contact develops, and they come to class and are willing to listen.

Teachers at the Hauptschulen also saw it as their responsibility to approach students having difficulty with the material and offer assistance. They made themselves available after class for students with questions and they frequently used group work and peer tutoring in their instruction in the classroom. Teachers often noted the value of having a stronger student help a weaker student on in-class exercises.

New material was always presented in class, and teachers said that to keep their students interested in the lesson, it was important to present the material in an engaging way. Teachers also spoke of the necessity of presenting the same material in many different ways to accommodate the differences in the ways students learn. Visualization and hands-on activities were often incorporated into the lesson to reinforce the material, which was also presented orally. One teacher described her efforts this way:

It is difficult to get all the kids to understand. So I try three or four different ways of explaining. I try to formulate the explanation differently. First I try to explain it intellectually. Then I try to explain it in a more practical, hands-on fashion. With the weaker students, I try to show them, to get them to visualize and experiment. I repeat the steps to solving a problem one by one.

Teachers noted that in-class exercises and homework were a repetition of the material covered in class and that they were used to reinforce learning.

Teachers also said that they saw the need to accommodate the stronger students and that they had strategies for keeping them engaged. They often gave these students extra in-class tasks to work on while the others were finishing up the required assignment. They might also ask one of the stronger students to look up additional information in the library or in newspapers and present it in class. These higher achieving students often continue on for their 10th year of school and attain the Realschule certificate.

Hauptschule teachers also mentioned the many disciplinary problems they encountered in the school. One teacher explained that many of these children are accustomed to doing what they want at home, since many come from families where both parents work and they are unsupervised after school. She therefore saw the school as having to take over in some ways for parents. Another teacher spoke of the expanded role of the school for Hauptschule students:

What I can say for certain is that the students, no matter what situation they are in, feel comfortable and well at school. One sees this in the way the students sit at school even, when they do not have any class. They do not want to go home. They feel a bit protected and they can always find someone with whom they can talk, and if one of the teachers walks through the recess hall, then they can talk with us. It is for them a good part home.

In sharp contrast to teachers at the Gymnasien, who focused on academic instruction, several teachers at the Hauptschulen described their jobs as including a social work function in addition to subject matter instruction. A particularly clear example of this was given in this statement by a Hauptschule teacher:

The students learn by emulating the teacher, so the teacher has to set a good example. If I treat the students with respect and propriety, they may learn to treat one another in this way. This is important, so that they can see there are other ways of behaving. They do not get this at home or from their surroundings. If there is a problem with a particular student, then I take him aside and try to listen and understand what the problem is. One influences children not by force, but by means of a trusting relationship that one builds up with them.

Support courses offered by the school were usually limited to Förderkurse (classes offering additional help) in the main subjects of mathematics and German, and the existence of these classes at a particular school was dependent on the availability of extra funding. A homework assistance program was sometimes offered at the school or a nearby community center; however, these programs were organized and supported by the city or by local churches. Both the support courses and homework assistance were offered in the afternoons for a few hours each week. The teachers we spoke with said that they encouraged their weak students to attend the support courses and homework assistance; however, some teachers stated that few students took advantage of the support courses.

Realschule. The course offerings at the Realschule have a more academic orientation than those in the Hauptschule, and the subject matter is presented in much greater depth. Realschulen teachers said they expect to challenge the students and hold them to a higher standard than is possible at the Hauptschulen. In addition, they expect students to be more motivated and to take the initiative to learn and study the subject material.

Despite the academic orientation at the Realschulen, relationships between students and teachers were less formal than they were at the Gymnasien. Like Hauptschulen teachers, Realschulen teachers said it was important to be available for students who had questions. They approached students who had difficulty with the material and provided them with assistance or suggested tutoring. Many teachers also said they encouraged peer tutoring by allowing students to work on their in-class exercises in pairs and in small groups.

As at the Hauptschulen, opportunities for assistance outside of class were available at some of the Realschulen in the form of support courses. These after-school classes were offered in the main subjects and attendance was voluntary. Teachers and students said that Realschule students who needed extra assistance in a particular subject frequently hired private tutors.

In general, it was evident from the Realschulen teachers that they saw their role as more than just an academic lecturer. They felt that building good student-teacher relationships was important, and they made themselves available to students. One teacher, articulated well how he saw his role and that of the school: "I do not think that the sole function of school is just to teach subject material; it is also to help students in their transition from youth to adulthood."

Gesamtschule. A relatively small number of students in Germany are actually enrolled in Gesamtschulen. Statistics from 1991 showed approximately 9 percent (Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland [KMK] 1993). The more traditionally conservative states have not added the Gesamtschule option, and even in the states which have added the Gesamtschule, opinions about the viability of this school form vary widely.

Gesamtschulen primarily enroll students who would have entered the Hauptschule or the Realschule and combine them in one building. In some schools, students suited to a Gymnasium may also attend the Gesamtschule. As a result, the full range of students in terms of level of academic ability can exist within the Gesamtschule.

In their first year at the Gesamtschule, students remain together in a "class" and receive the same instruction in the same subjects. This deferral of differentiation allows students who need additional fostering to receive it with their peers and to continue to benefit from the help provided by stronger classmates. Beginning in the sixth grade, a limited number of subjects are taught at different levels of difficulty. From the eighth grade onwards students are placed into most of their courses on the basis of their grades in prior years. The decisions about placement are based on each student's strength or weakness in particular subjects. This system allows students to receive instruction in the primary subjects that is geared to their level of ability without tracking them entirely into advanced-level, mid-level, or low-level classes, as is done in the traditional school forms. Also, as a student's level of ability improves (or declines), they are placed in a course at the appropriate level. Parents can contest decisions about placement in courses if they do not agree with them. However, when parents request their child be placed in a more difficult level course, the move is made on a probationary basis.

Primary subject teachers instruct fairly homogeneous classes. The teachers we spoke with indicated that they used peer tutoring, believed that teaching through hands-on discovery was important to retaining students' interest, and that they were responsible for teaching more than academic knowledge in many ways. Like the teachers in the Hauptschulen and Realschulen, teachers in the Gesamtschule which we visited made themselves available to students who had questions and stressed that their role of teacher had expanded to include educating and assisting students who do not receive much attention at home.

The Gesamtschule offered a course providing assistance with homework once a week, but one of the teachers we spoke to felt that it was really not adequate, since it was taught by only one teacher, who was responsible for helping students across all subjects. Recent reforms, however, had led to the addition of a special course in German as a second language, which entailed 6 hours of additional instruction per week for foreign students with weak German language skills. In addition, two school social workers and a part-time school psychologist had recently been added to the school's staff.

Gymnasium. Traditionally, students deemed to possess the highest scholarly ability attend a Gymnasium. Although courses at the Gymnasium are demanding from the earliest grade levels, most students said that the courses become even more difficult during their last 2 years. Throughout grades 12 and 13, students are required to take two advanced-level courses, called Leistungskurse, in addition to their regular courses. Leistungskurse offer much more concentrated and indepth study of the subject matter.

Teachers cited essential student characteristics for success at the Gymnasium as the ability to absorb material quickly, think logically, and work independently. Instruction relies primarily on lectures by the teachers, but in some subjects may also include discussions and student presentations. Teachers expect students to take the initiative in asking for help when they have difficulty understanding the material. They expect students to apply themselves and to seek outside tutoring if necessary (in language classes this was seen as especially acceptable). Peer tutoring and group work were not common means of instruction in the Gymnasium, although teachers thought it was acceptable for students to study together after school and ask each other for help if they did not understand something.

Generally, teachers did not propose that it was their duty to rescue students in academic difficulty. Academic problems, in their view, usually arose from lack of work rather than lack of aptitude, and students who were unwilling to work should go to an easier school form. Teachers also stated that there were often a few students who attended the Gymnasium because of parental expectations who were not able to meet the required level of performance. No school support was available to these students beyond what an individual teacher might be willing to do to assist them. Several teachers voiced the opinion that these inappropriately placed students slowed the progress of the rest of the class, and they recommended that these students transfer to a school that was appropriate for their level of ability.

The only out-of-school support services that Gymnasium students commonly availed themselves of was private tutoring. Although students and parents all recognized that tutoring may be necessary on occasion for particular subjects, parents in particular stated that if it was necessary for a student to use tutors frequently in the lower grades of the Gymnasium, then it would be better if the student transferred to a less demanding school form. Parents and teachers often stated that the stress of always being close to failing would not be good for the student, and it would be better if the student had a chance to experience success in learning.

Berufsschule and Berufliches Gymnasium. Berufsschulen are part of the dual education system available at the secondary level. They offer a variety of programs, which combine study with an apprenticeship over a period of 2 to 3 years. Students generally spend 3 1/2 days each week on the job at their apprenticeship and a day and a half in class at the Berufsschule.

According to Berufsschulen teachers, students who enter their courses with higher-level secondary school certificates generally have less difficulty with the course work than those entering with Hauptschule certificates. However, teachers felt that weak students could be successful if they put in the effort. Most teachers said that they would make themselves available to assist students who had questions and that they would often spend extra time in the classroom going over the exercise worksheets with the weaker students, while the others worked independently. Teachers at the Berufsschulen also said they had their students work in mixed-ability groups, because they believed this was helpful for weaker students. In some cases, they encouraged peer-tutor relationships, but they felt they could not force students into such a situation. If weak students needed extra assistance, Berufsschulen teachers were much more likely to talk to the student's employer and arrange for extra assistance through the student's work supervisor. No formal program organized through the school offered support to the weaker students. Since teachers only spent 1 1/2 days each week with their students, they felt that they did not have enough time to develop close relationships with them or offer additional assistance.

In addition to the academic curriculum that they were responsible for teaching, Berufsschulen teachers also tried to foster qualities such as independent learning and the ability to solve problems individually and as team members. These were qualities which they saw as essential to effectiveness in the work environment.

The Berufliches Gymnasium offers the last 3 years (the Oberstufe) of Gymnasium but combines the academic offerings typical of a standard Gymnasium with courses of a vocational or technical nature. It is usually attended by students who have obtained either the Realschule certificate or its equivalent. In recent years, the Berufliches Gymnasium has also attracted students who have transferred from a standard Gymnasium to receive an Abitur that specializes in economics (i.e., business-related studies or technological sciences) the two most common specializations offered by Berufliches Gymnasien.

Just as in the Oberstufe at a traditional Gymnasium, course work at the Berufliches Gymnasium is separated into regular and advanced subjects. However, several individuals indicated that the level of student performance was lower at the Berufliches Gymnasium than at a standard Gymnasium. Teachers emphasized that they focused on covering the subject matter and preparing students for the Abitur and that this left little time for them to develop relationships with their students. However, one teacher indicated that he offered a review session for students entering the Berufliches Gymnasium so that they would be able to cover the material required for the Abitur. He also noted that the teachers spent time teaching students how to study.

None of the teachers we interviewed offered out-of-class assistance to students, although one indicated that the worksheets he gave out as homework were a repetition of material covered in class. If students were having difficulty or had questions, they were expected to take the initiative and approach the teacher. No after-school support programs, tutoring, or homework-assistance classes were offered by the school.

Mathematics and Science Instruction

The level of ability of the student population tracked to each of the various secondary school forms and the instructional goals of each of these forms affected both the depth and the speed at which material was introduced to students. This was clearly the case across all subjects, but we were interested in finding out more about mathematics and science instruction at the secondary level. In particular, we were interested in the ways in which mathematics and science instruction varied across school forms. We were also interested in whether mathematics and science were considered primary subjects in the education of all students, or whether the emphasis of these subjects was dependent on students' perceived vocation or education tracks. To understand this, we must first look briefly at mathematics and science instruction at the elementary level.

Grundschule. Mathematics is one of the two primary subjects emphasized in the curriculum at the Grundschule. A significant portion of each instructional day is focused on mathematics, and students begin receiving grades for mathematics in the second or third grade, depending on the state. The grade-point average calculated in the fourth grade and upon which students' tracking recommendations are made is based on the grades received in mathematics, German, and (in some states) Sachkunde.

At the Grundschule, sciences and social studies are all taught under the umbrella of a subject area called topical studies Sachkunde. Although the structure of Sachkunde varies somewhat with the curricular goals of the states, teachers in the central part of Germany said that they teach Sachkunde 2—4 hours a week with about one-third of the time devoted to subjects related to science. Teachers also said that Sachkunde provides an excellent opportunity for them to have students work together in small groups of mixed ability, thereby allowing the weaker students to work with and learn from their stronger classmates.

Hauptschule, Realschule, and Gesamtschule. Students are tracked into the Hauptschule and the Realschule for specific reasons. As a result, the student populations at these schools have distinct education profiles and needs. It is therefore significant that instruction in mathematics and science at each of these school forms is based on the pedagogical philosophy underlying the structure and purpose of each of these schools. A discussion of the course requirements and instructional methods used at these schools is important to understand the differences between them. It will also provide a basis for understanding the comparative rigor of the Gymnasium. The Gesamtschule, being a more open school form, attracts a greater diversity of students, but most are comparable in their level of ability to students enrolled in the Hauptschule or Realschule.

Hauptschule teachers noted that they expect their students to achieve a basic knowledge in all the primary subjects, including mathematics and science. Examples of mathematical problems found in everyday life are the foundation of instruction. Teachers stated that this connection to the real world is very important, not only for teaching mathematical skills that students are going to need throughout life, but also for maintaining student interest in the subject. New material is always presented in class, and students are given class time to do their worksheet problems.

Teachers walk around the classroom as students work on their problems individually or in pairs, assist students, and answer questions. The stronger students, who complete their worksheets ahead of the rest of the class, are given additional problems of the same kind on which to continue working. As in the Grundschule, teachers use worksheets as drills to reinforce class learning.

The C-level track of the Gesamtschule is essentially the equivalent of the Hauptschule, except that students who improve and receive grades of 1 or 2 can transfer to the B-level track, where more challenging material is covered.

There are slight variations from state to state in the course offerings which students at the Hauptschule are required to take, the number of hours per week they are required to take them, and the grades in which they are required (or begin and end). However, there is a strong belief that these courses are integral to the education of Hauptschule students. In most states, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are all among the subjects required through their final year, the ninth grade. Presented below are two examples of state mathematics and science requirements for Hauptschule students.

All Realschule students within a particular state have the same mathematics and science course requirements in grades five through seven. However, beginning in the 8th grade, they have the option of choosing curricular tracks, and mathematics and sciences course requirements will vary slightly, depending on the track which a student has chosen to study from the 8th to the 10th grade. The most commonly offered curricular tracks are the natural science, business, and social sciences. Of the three, the natural science track requires the highest level of mathematics and science ability and a larger number of total class hours in these subjects. However, the following comparison of mathematics and science courses in the natural science track and the social science track shows that there are not large differences in the number of required hours of instruction. Math and science courses are considered integral to the education of all students in the Realschule.

Math classes taken as part of the natural science track are sometimes referred to as advanced mathematics classes. What may be part of the natural science curriculum in one grade may be part of the business curriculum in a later grade. For example, our observations, made on the same day in a Realschule revealed that the 9th-grade students in the natural science track were covering essentially the same type of material as the 10th-grade mathematics class for business track students.

In all Realschule classes, teachers expect the students to work at a higher standard and more independently than at the Hauptschule. The course work is a mixture of practical and theoretical lessons, and teachers expect students to participate more in class. Students receiving a Realschule certificate in any of the three tracks are entitled to continue their studies at a Gymnasium, Berufliches Gymnasium, or advanced-level vocational training program which leads to a mid-level professional position, so the required mathematics and science preparation received in all these tracks is quite high. Math and science classes offered at the Gesamtschule, which are equivalent to those in the Realschule, are the A- and B-level classes.

Gymnasium. The level of mathematics and science offered at all Gymnasien is very high, and mathematics continues to be a course requirement for all students through the 13th grade. However, some differences in the requirements exist depending on the curricular orientation of the Gymnasium. Gymnasien which offer the mathematics and natural science orientation require students to take more hours of mathematics and science courses than students enrolled in other types of Gymnasium, such as the modern languages Gymnasium.

A breakdown of the mathematics curriculum offered in the Gymnasium in one of the more northern states shows that students study the following general topics in grades 7 through 10. Seventh-grade mathematics covers basic graph making, geometry, rational numbers, frequency, and probability. Eighth-grade mathematics covers linear functions, linear equations and inequalities, congruencies/geometric figures, and probability experiments in multiple stages. Ninth-grade mathematics covers linear equations systems, real numbers, quadratic functions and equations, and Pythagorean theorem. Tenth-grade mathematics covers potency, exponential and logarithm functions, area and measurement of circular objects, trigonometric functions, and Bernoulli chains (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 1989).

As noted above, however, the amount of mathematics and the amount and type of science which students are required to take depends on the type of Gymnasium the student attends or the curricular track (if Gymnasium offers more than one track) chosen . Requirements for two different types of Gymnasium in a southern state show that the differences are not large and do not begin until the eighth grade.

In addition, students may elect to take mathematics as one of their two required Leistungskurse in grades 12 and 13. While requirements may vary across states, in the Gymnasien at our primary research site, Leistungskurse met 5 hours a week, and Grundskurse (minor subjects) met 3 hours a week.

Teachers said that the level of the course material in the Leistungskurse is deeper and more theoretical than in the Grundskurse and that they use different textbooks than in the Grundskurse. One teacher described his view of instruction at the Leistungskurs level in the following way:

In the advanced courses one has more time and can go through more complex trains of thought. And naturally one has better people in advanced courses who understand the material better, so one goes into more depth and the students participate to a much greater extent.

The students we spoke with said that they chose Leistungskurse based on their strengths and their interests and that these reasons often resulted in classes that were more homogenous in level of ability. One student explained it this way when asked about class diversity and class participation:

In Leistungskurse the standard is rather homogenous. We only have small differences in performance level and students keep up with the material. This situation is facilitated by the fact that you choose only two majors. The bigger differences are in the minor subjects. The teacher usually explains the material there so that all students understand. Homogeneity in the Leistungskurse is also sustained by the possibility to change majors in the second semester of 11th grade. By then, students should know whether they can follow the material properly or whether they have problems.

Students also noted that the selection of Leistungskurse was often based on what students thought they might study at the university, and most students we spoke with at the Gymnasien indicated that they thought at least 80 percent of their class would attend a university. Therefore, those students who were taking math and science Leistungskurse were receiving very high level and concentrated study in subjects which would prepare them for study at the university in a wide range of scientific careers.

In summary, it can be said that mathematics is one of the core courses for German school children at the Grundschule, and it continues to be a core course for all students at the secondary level, regardless of the school form, which they have been tracked to. Science courses are also required of students in all school forms, and the diversity of the science subjects required at the Hauptschule is no less than that required at the Gymnasium. Students at all school forms are introduced to biology, chemistry, and physics from at least the sixth grade on, and biology is a required subject in the fifth grade in most school forms. The methods of instruction, depth of the material presented, and the speed at which it is covered are adjusted to the level of ability of the student population in each of the school forms, but mathematics and science courses are considered to be essential to the education of students of all levels of ability.

Career Development and Career Advising Within the Secondary School Forms

The division of the student population into distinct school forms by level of ability affects all aspects of student instruction. Academic subjects are offered to students in all school forms, but the construction of choices varies across school forms. In addition, the different school forms differ in the ways in which they facilitate career development and career choices. One of the implicit understandings of the differentiated school system is that students make career choices and enter the labor force at very different ages, depending upon the secondary school form in which they enroll. Consequently, we were interested in investigating both how the various school forms structured their curriculum in relation to career expectations and the ages at which students were first introduced to issues and activities related to career planning. We were also interested in the nature of the advising services schools provided students to assist them with their educational and vocational choices.

Hauptschule. Classes are not usually tracked within the Hauptschule itself. Instead, teachers at the Hauptschule use a variety of instructional techniques to help all students learn. Although students tracked to the Hauptschule are those who have displayed the lowest academic achievement at the Grundschule, they are required to continue to study core academic subjects through the ninth grade. However, Hauptschule also offer classes with a vocational orientation, such as home economics, textile work, crafts, metal work, use of computers, and technical drawing. These classes are subunits of a required subject called Arbeitslehre. They are designed to allow students to discover their strengths and to prepare them for further vocational training.

Vocational counseling services are considered a basic necessity at the Hauptschule. A specific vocational guidance program is provided beginning in the seventh grade and continuing through the ninth grade. In most states this program is directed by the Arbeitslehre teacher with varying degrees of outside support services. In central Germany, social workers from the city or region in which the school is located visit the school to work with the students throughout the last years of Hauptschule. They seek to prepare students for the working world, show them the location and procedures of the government employment office and discuss the services it can provide. In addition, the social workers go with the seventh- and eighth-grade students to a vocational education center where they can learn about specific training programs for various trades. The students can observe the training program and see what the type of work that interest them in actually entails. Social workers also work with the Hauptschule teachers to coordinate the students' practical training. In the seventh grade, the practical training is divided into two training opportunities at two different firms for 2 weeks each. Another practical training period occurs in the ninth grade. This practical training period lasts for 3 weeks and can sometimes lead to a contract with a firm and the path to the dual vocational education system following completion of the Hauptschule.

Realschule. Students who demonstrate average or above average ability in the Grundschule continue their academic preparation at the Realschule. In the 8th grade, Realschule students select one of three academic tracks which they follow through the 10th grade. In the southern region of Germany, these academic tracks were divided into three areas: the natural sciences, business, and the liberal arts. These tracks were described by one of the teachers in the following way:

The mathematics branch focuses on mathematics and technical drawing. The commercial branch deals more with commerce and accounting, and in the liberal arts track, arts education, and social sciences are more important.

Although all Realschule students are required to take math and science through the 10th grade, a division by ability (and interest) begins to occur when students chose a track. The natural science and business tracks require students to take more advanced mathematics classes than does the liberal arts track, and students are aware of these differences. Tracks are generally considered preparatory for more advanced study or training of a similar nature, and track selection can have an important impact on later career or training choices.

Vocational and technical career choices are greatly expanded for Realschule students when compared to Hauptschule students. In addition, it is possible for Realschule students to pursue the Abitur through either the standard Gymnasium or the Berufliches Gymnasium following the receipt of their Realschule certificate at the end of the 10th grade.

The methods of providing career guidance at Realschulen varies somewhat among the states; however, the focus of career guidance for Realschule students is similar across states. Unlike the Hauptschule, where the focus of career advising is largely on apprenticeship programs, Realschule students are given information on other opportunities for further schooling as well as on apprenticeship programs. At a Realschule we visited in the southern region of Germany, career guidance was primarily provided by teachers. In this Realschule a teacher who was designated as the advisor for career guidance informed the students about which schools were available to them after they completed the Realschule, and he established contact with vocational guidance professionals at the government employment office. Another teacher was designated to assist students with information about professions and help them find internships. A guidance professional from the government employment office also visited the school every month to talk with the ninth-grade students, discuss the classes they had taken and school or training programs which would be appropriate for them following their completion of schooling at the Realschule. In addition, the school encouraged students to do some form of practical training during the Easter break.

Gesamtschule. Although students in Gesamtschule do not select pre-established tracks such as those at the Realschule, Gesamtschule students can select from a number of elective subjects beginning in the seventh grade. The selection of electives operates as an informal tracking mechanism within a school that accommodates a wide range of differences in ability. Students' choices can influence the educational options, which are available to them following their 10th grade at Gesamtschule. For instance, students who plan to attend a Gymnasium following Gesamtschule must study two languages in addition to German. Therefore, elective courses are usually selected with some general academic or vocational goals in mind.

In addition, students at the Gesamtschule are placed into basic- or advance-level courses in most of their major courses from the seventh grade. Since advanced-level courses are required for the Realschule certificate and for continuance into a Gymnasium, enrollment in the advanced-level courses becomes important for students who hope to have a broader range of educational or vocational choices. Therefore, the motivation to achieve placement in advanced-level courses can depend on a student's awareness of the relevance of these classes to their future and the amount of thinking they have done about their educational or vocational goals.

As students enter the 7th grade, the school encourages them to think about their future goals by requiring them to indicate to the school what they will probably do later on: for instance, whether they intend to leave the Gesamtschule at the end of the 9th grade with the Hauptschule certificate, at the end of the 10th grade with the Realschule certificate, or whether they intend to continue their studies and attempt to obtain the Abitur. Then, at the end of the eighth grade, the school sends a letter to the parents of each student indicating the most likely leaving certificate their child will achieve (future performance is projected from performance results through the eighth grade). The letter is not meant as a final dictum but is rather to serve as a guide for students and parents in their deliberations on academic-vocational career options.

Although further research would have to be done to determine whether the school or parents were more influential in informing students of their educational choices and the consequences of various decisions made in their early adolescent years, it was clear that students were fairly well informed. The students with whom we spoke were aware of the differences between basic- and advanced-level courses: the difference in the level of difficulty, in the extent to which the material was covered, how students were placed in these levels, and the impact placement had on whether or not study at a Gymnasium would be possible.

When we asked students and teachers whether students who are primarily in basic-level courses received advice on later job opportunities, they said that such counseling began by the eighth grade and that students who intended to leave with the Hauptschule certificate received training concerning vocational choices to determine where their skills lie. They also mentioned an interest survey which students were required to complete and the opportunity for a 3-week Berufspraktikum (practical training) at the end of the eighth grade. The Gesamtschule maintained lists, accessible to students, of firms that were willing to participate in the practical training program. One of the teachers also mentioned that a course called Berufskunde (career studies) was required in the ninth grade; it taught students about various professions and about the organizational forms of business and labor laws that apply to each form.

Gymnasium. Since Gymnasien focus their instruction by providing one or more academic tracks, parents track students into a particular academic track when they select a Gymnasium for their child.

Although the curriculum from the fifth through the eighth grade is entirely prescribed according to the requirements of the education track they are in, students described the situation as more flexible beginning in the ninth grade. The primary subjects remain requirements, but in addition students are able to select courses of interest. Then in the 11th grade, students select two Leistungskurse (majors) in which they will take a series of advanced-level courses during grades 12 and 13, and the rest of their required courses are taken at the basic level. Students described the selection of Leistungskurse as an opportunity to specialize in subjects of particular interest, and they said that the Leistungskurse provided good preparation for further study at the university. They are not compelled to continue with these same subjects as their major at the university. However, students recognized that if a student switched areas entirely when entering the university — from social sciences to the hard sciences, for instance — the student may lack the necessary preparation for study in that area at the university. Since nearly 80 percent of Gymnasium students enroll in a university following their Abitur, they were aware that the selection of their Leistungskurse was important not only to their final Abitur grade but also to theirfuture educational goals.

From the interviews we conducted, it appeared that the opportunity to explore careers that was provided to students at the other school forms was generally not provided to Gymnasium students. The focus of the counseling that did take place was on entrance into university and on the university system itself and was not oriented toward careers. This is a reflection of the fact that historically the Gymnasium has prepared students for university study rather than for jobs which require technical skills. One student told us that a guidance professional from the government employment office came to the school and talked about the "situation at universities - how long it would take to get a degree, what the situation was like there, the importance of the grade average on the Abitur for admittance at a university. However, he gave little information about what we will face after university." Another student reported, that "there is an information week provided by universities where you can talk to individual professors or advisors from the employment office. Those who want to go to a professional training program do not have good counseling." From this statement, at least, it appears that the approximately 20 percent of students who receive an Abitur and decide not to continue on to the university receive little guidance regarding other options.

In fact, several people said that many students are interested in the Abitur as a gateway to other professional opportunities and see the Abitur, combined with a professional training program, as a means of securing employment in a very competitive job market.

Both teachers and parents told us that employers have inflated their job requirements. Some positions that in the past only required a Realschule certificate are now being filled by individuals who have an Abitur. And, in fields such as business and banking, Abitur holders who complete professional training programs are hired more readily than university graduates, because they have actual work experience. Some students who plan to study at a university are completing a professional training program first, so that upon graduation from the university they will not only have the university degree but also some work experience to make them more attractive to employers. The appeal of the Abitur, therefore, has increased in recent years as a larger percentage of the population has come to see it as a certification leading to greater opportunities for employment, especially when combined with professional training. However, it appears that career-advising services at the Gymnasium have not kept up with the broader spectrum of career aspirations of those studying for the Abitur.

Berufsschule. Students select a career path when they make the decision to attend a Berufsschule to pursue study and training in a particular trade or vocation, and they are tracked at the Berufsschule according to the vocational program, which they have chosen to pursue. Classes are generally kept together throughout the 2 to 3 year program so that all students enrolled in a particular program attend the same lessons together.

Although we have limited data on career advising, it appeared that the student's apprenticeship supervisor was primarily responsible for the student and assumed an advising function regarding the student's vocation. Additional career guidance was not provided, although teachers pointed out that if they had questions students could talk to them, or to a representative of the industry and trade council, or to both. Although students can change vocational tracks, they must start at the beginning of a new vocational program.

Berufliches Gymnasium. As noted in the earlier section on the Berufliches Gymnasium, this Oberstufe is a variation of the standard Gymnasium. Students who chose this type of Gymnasium usually did so because it allowed them to specialize in subject areas, which they felt were directly applicable to the world of work. The students we interviewed, for instance, had chosen to attend a program specializing in economics, which gave them course work related to business and finance. Successful completion of their studies and the Abitur exam would qualify them for admission to higher education, including university study. Due to the limited number of individuals we were able to interview here, we do not have data informing us of any career or vocational advising that takes place in this school form.

In summary, the implementation of educational and vocational advising services vary greatly across school forms. The content and direction provided students vary as well as the age at which counseling begins. Students who are enrolled in school forms that end in the 9th or 10th grade are provided in-class and out-of-school opportunities for learning about the world of work. These include information about different vocations, skills and interest tests, meetings with staff from the local labor office, and internship experiences. All of this takes place during their early adolescent years. At the same time, the curricular decisions they make beginning in the seventh grade influence the occupation and education options which will be open to them as they leave the Hauptschule or Realschule. In contrast to this, Gymnasium students receive almost no occupational or career choice guidance. The guidance that is provided revolves around study at the university and usually occurs in their late adolescent years.

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[Chapter 3 (Part 2 of 5]

[Chapter 3 (Part 4 of 5)]