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Germany's dual system of education is comprised of part-time vocational training combined with part-time study. Entrance to the dual system is gained through the successful completion of study at a Hauptschule, Realschule, or Gymnasium.
All young adults who want to prepare for a profession outlined by the vocational education law must attend a dual education program. As a result, each year, around 600,000 young people, two-thirds of those who have completed their compulsory education, enter training programs in the dual system. Students generally attend a part-time vocational school 1 to 2 days a week and are involved in practical training during the remainder of the week. The length of the vocational programs vary, but they are typically between 2 and 3 years in length, and they require the successful completion of a final examination.
The Berufsschule is the school form through which most dual education programs are offered. The Berufsschule, and the businesses, which provide the practical training for its students, have the mission of providing both vocational and general education related to the demands of specific professions and the world of work.
Training regulations, which have been developed for approximately 370 recognized trades and professions, establish minimum course content and are regularly updated in consultation with employers, trade unions, and teachers. Unlike the general education (K-13) schools, which are under the direct control of local and regional authorities, the responsibility for the dual system of education is shared by a number of interested parties. These include the KMK, the states, and vocational teachers along with representatives from industry, the trades, and trade unions. Representatives of each of these cooperate in the preparation of the training regulations, which form the basis for the curricular guidelines issued by state Ministries of Education. In addition, the Federal Institute for Vocational Training conducts research to monitor changes in the economy and technology.
Vocational students tend to be goal-oriented individuals who are eager to enter the world of work but who are also concerned about the economic uncertainties of the 1990's. Many students said that they view vocational training, which offers them a chance to specialize, as an opportunity to secure a position in an increasingly competitive job market. Vocational education is also viewed by some students as a springboard to further study, possibly at a university. One 19-year-old woman had a business Abitur and an interest in economics and working with numbers that led her to consider a career in banking. In view of the tight job market, this student felt lucky to be able to work for a bank that had already indicated that it would hire her after successful completion of the final exam.
While the students we spoke to were very positive about their decision to enter a part-time vocational school and receive on-the-job training, they differed in their assessment of how effectively education and training are integrated. Although some saw a direct link between school knowledge and practical training, others asserted that only a fraction of what they learn in school can be applied on the job. All students acknowledged that the 1.5 days a week they spend in school provide them with a basis for understanding some of the laws and procedures that guide their work in the bank.
Programs are generally divided into basic and specialized levels. Students may attend school 1 to 2 days a week and work in the private sector for the remainder of the week. A typical student might work on Monday, Tuesday, and Friday from 8:00 a.m. to 4:40 p.m. and Wednesday and Thursday from 1:30-4:15 p.m. and attend classes on Wednesday and Thursday mornings and early afternoons.
One Berufsschule in Central State that we visited offered vocational education programs in economics and administration, including banking, office work and small business, nutrition and home economics, sales, hotel management, and cooking. In addition to vocational subjects, students must take German, politics, religion, and physical education. A student's education concludes with a completion examination administered by the Chamber of Industry and Commerce. Teachers said that more than 90 percent of all students from this school pass the examination with above-average scores. In addition, students with a Hauptschule certificate can obtain the equivalent of a Realschule certificate if they receive at least grades of "satisfactory" in German and attend an English course and earn a final grade point average of at least a "3."
Since teachers' salaries are paid by the state government, and nonpersonnel items are the responsibility of each locality, the main differences between Berufsschulen in Germany tend to be in the quality of facilities and equipment. Differences can also be attributed to different organizational structures. For instance, some Berufsschule are physically and administratively combined with vocational Gymnasium known as berufliches Gymnasium, and some Berufsschule offer vocational training according to block schedules. In block scheduling, classroom instruction and on-the-job training are not integrated into the same week, but rather offered in separate periods of time.
Berufsschule teachers said that students in their classes have become more heterogeneous than in the past. The principal of one Berufsschule in Central State estimated that at one time 90 percent of all Berufsschule students had a Realschule diploma. Now, there are more students with Abiturs that enroll in the Berufsschule. As a result, there is a greater range in students ability. The better students tend to be Abitur holders, while the weaker students are usually the Hauptschule graduates. Teachers stated that this creates the problem of having to teach to students of differing abilities and degrees of motivation.
Curriculum committees decide the content and standards for each of the education and training programs by voting on resolutions. These curriculum guidelines are revised once a year. Teachers said that they then use the curriculum guidelines, such as those for the banking curriculum, to develop lessons, which cover each of the topics in the guidelines. Teachers in the banking program said that they do not generally use texts, since many are outdated. They prefer to use up-to-date and concrete examples.
Teachers are generally not able to modify the curriculum, since it is linked so closely to the completion exam, 70 percent of which consists of multiple-choice questions. One teacher told us without hesitation that his main task was to prepare the students to take the final examination that qualifies them to pursue a career in banking, adding that he does not agree with those aspects of the curriculum that require him to cover material which has no practical value for bank employees. For example, the Chamber of Industry and Commerce requires that students learn about the components and inner workings of a personal computer when, in reality, what they use computers for in banking is electronic spreadsheets, word processing, and databases. Another teacher asserted that so-called key qualifications, such as teamwork, small group problem solving, and communication, should be emphasized but instead "fall by the wayside."
The training institutions also have guidelines that they must follow. Training is provided on the basis of a civil law contract between the company providing the training and the trainee. The contract covers all aspects of vocational training, including objectives, duration and amount of training, salary, and the duties and responsibilities of the trainer and trainee.
In the Berufsschulen visited, the role of textbooks is limited; they are used more as reference sources and for review than instructional purposes. One teacher estimated the breakdown as follows: 40 percent workbooks, 40 percent worksheets, and 20 percent textbooks. Teachers stated that texts are frequently used for homework assignments to allow students to review and internalize material. The homework is collected randomly, which means that the teacher announces that homework will be collected from five students at the next class. Compared to other school types, the homework load is light for Berufsschule students. One of the students told us that it took her between 2 and 3 hours per week to complete school-related assignments. In addition, she has bank-related work (e.g., writing reports about training films), all of which must be done outside school and work time.
Vocational students rarely repeat a grade; they are generally promoted and passed along until the final exam. If a student fails, it is possible to repeat the last year and extend the period of training. About 10 percent or fewer end up repeating a grade.
Classroom observations reflected the practical orientation of the Berufsschule curriculum and illustrated the teacher's remarks about the relevance of the curriculum for banking professionals. One class on computers, "Electronic Data Processing," was taught in a combined classroom and computer lab. The class of 15 students was preparing for an in-class examination on the personal computer to be given 1 week later. Students' questions dealt mainly with the exam's content and the material for which the student would be responsible.
The teacher emphasized that the test material would relate to what he thought they needed to know as bank employees. For example, there is no need to possess detailed knowledge of how a computer functions in order to make an entry in a savings passbook. In contrast, the exam would ask the students to define and explain the basic components of the computer, such as a mouse, screen, and keyboard and computer terminology like the CPU, RAM, ASCII, data vs. software, and ROM. The teacher pointed out several outmoded expressions mentioned in the text that have been replaced by English terms and abbreviations.
In one Berufsschule visited, a computer classroom had a total of 10 computers, all of which were networked and connected to the Internet. The school had three other computer labs. One of the students at this school complained about the age of the equipment. The teacher, in contrast, thought that the school was fairly well equipped in comparison to other vocational schools in the same state.
One class for 2nd-year banking students dealt with different types of loans. The class period was devoted to figuring out the costs of long-term (e.g., mortgage) and short-term (e.g., personal) loans. The teacher passed out a sheet listing the key concepts and terms discussed in the class, comparing and contrasting short-term credit with long-term credit. The two types of loans included annuity loans and loans with declining balances. The teacher provided two examples illustrating the dynamics of each type of loan. A second purpose of the class was to allow the students to acquire practical experience in developing payment schedules using computer software. The teacher wrote the directions on the board to guide them through a standard program and provided the class with four scenarios. The students worked in pairs or small groups to solve each problem and to obtain printouts of their work.
Application procedure and selection. Banking is widely regarded as the elite program, which teachers and students agreed is related to the image of the banks and the prestige associated with the industry and not necessarily to the ability of bank professionals to earn more than other business people.
According to the director of personnel at a bank located not too far from a school we visited, the selection of trainees is based on the quality of the application, grade point average, (especially in German math, and a foreign language), and the results of an aptitude test. The initial application procedure is actually a preselection; the more promising candidates are invited for a group interview during which they are asked questions about themselves and the banking industry. The purpose of these sessions is to evaluate what the test does not cover and to look at the content as well as the form of the applicant's answers to a variety of questions. They are separated into groups on the basis of age or school completion. The other purpose of the interview is to gauge the level of interest in banking as a profession. One training supervisor informed us that Abitur holders have a slight advantage in the selection process over Realschule graduates. In the past, female Abitur holders were at a distinct disadvantage, because it was thought they would get married, have children, and quit their job. Normally, banks hire a 50/50 mix of men and women who are graduates of either the Realschule or the Gymnasium. Training supervisors revealed that students with higher school qualifications will have improved career advancement opportunities over students who have a Realschule or other school diploma. In this region, 14-16 percent of all applicants are accepted for banking apprenticeship programs. Trainees generally receive a salary of $600-900 per month, which increases each year of the traineeship and is subject to a contractual collective bargaining agreement.
One local bank in Central State employed about 90 trainees, of whom 1 worked at a branch office we visited. There is stiff competition with other banks in the metropolitan area for good trainees. Banks actively recruit trainees; for example, 1 bank published a 50-page booklet entitled "Career Goal: Banking Professional" complete with color photos of smiling trainees and graphics. The publication included an explanation of the dual system of vocational education, detailed descriptions of each area of banking and the curriculum, and excerpts from the 1979 federal vocational law for banking programs. It began by saying: "In this brochure we want to tell you what your training with us will be like. What we can offer you, but also what we expect from you."
Most banks make it clear from the beginning that they will only provide training without any prospects for a permanent position. In reality, however, most banks hire their trainees after successful completion of the apprenticeship. This is a result of both the thorough selection process and the fact that by the time students take the completion examination, the banks have had 3 years to observe them, evaluate their performance, and gauge their suitability as permanent employees. Once a trainee has been hired it is very rare that he is asked to leave. A personnel supervisor at one of the banks could recall only two instances in 8 years, one because of personality problems. All trainees have a probationary period of 3 months.
Apprenticeship and performance evaluation. The supervisor is responsible for the quality of the program. In addition to ensuring that the trainees are exposed to good role models within the bank, the bank also provides in-house training and seminars on such topics as customer service. For example, there may be a 2-day seminar in which the purpose is to ascertain a trainee's personality weaknesses and strengths and teach her to recognize these in herself and others.
Trainees work 3 days a week during the school year and full time during school vacations. One trainee stated that her training program rotated her through different departments of the bank for training in each area. For example, during the 1st year, she worked directly with customers for 6 months performing routine tasks and then she worked in the accounting department, where she was able to learn about how transactions are processed.
In order to receive an evaluation, an apprentice must have worked in a department for at least 4 weeks. She is then evaluated on a scale of one to seven with a written summary, which she discusses with her training supervisor. The evaluation touches on characteristics, including: subject matter knowledge, creative thinking, oral and written expression, personal qualities such as diligence, effort, and the ability to perform under pressure, collegiality, sense of responsibility, ability to make decisions, and conduct as a subordinate as well as a supervisor, among others. The evaluation form also includes a description of the responsibilities for that particular job, space for additional remarks, and a written record between trainee and supervisor. This performance assessment is unrelated to the report card issued by the school, which students said is not of much value. Grades are given by topic area rather than subject, meaning that one grade is a composite of three different subjects.
Trainees are given written performance evaluations, based on a point system, which describes their strengths and weaknesses. These are discussed with each trainee and kept in personnel files. The bank also maintains contact with Berufsschule teachers to solicit suggestions for improvement. Up to now, every trainee accepted by the banks we visited has been hired after taking the completion examination. The reason behind this is obvious: these individuals know the bank and its operations, they have proven themselves, and they have a sense of loyalty and commitment to their employer. However, one trainer thought this might change because of a recent merger with another bank and the need for fewer employees.
Despite the near certainty of a job offer with the bank in which they train, students and teachers noted there are also some trainees who opt to study at the university or work for another bank in a nearby city at a higher salary rather than accept a position with the bank at the end of their traineeship. In other words, they are not tied to the bank at which they were trained once the traineeship is completed and they have passed their completion examination.
Preparation for the completion examination, which all students agreed is challenging, consists of reviewing old exams in the various subject areas. One period at the Berufsschule per week is devoted to preparation for the completion exam. One bank also provided an in-house review one morning per week to prepare its trainees for the exam.
According to several students, hiring decisions have traditionally been made on the basis of final exam results: those who receive a "3" or better are hired unconditionally, while those candidates who earn a grade lower than a "3" receive a 1-year contract with an option for renewal. Initial hiring depends mostly on the results of the examination rather than other factors, such as whether one has the Abitur.
The completion examination consists of a pool of problems that is changed from year to year to reflect changes in laws and the economy. A bank trainer with whom we spoke considered the oral part to be the most important part of the exam because of its practical nature. The examiners include representatives from the employers, an employee representative, and a teacher from the Berufsschule.
The final examination is centrally administered every 6 months in Central and South State through a cooperative arrangement. This is one of the few such cooperative academic arrangements that we encountered between these two or any other states. The examination is composed by a committee of employer and teacher representatives. Comparability is guaranteed and the credential is officially recognized throughout Germany.
A completion exam in Central State from several years ago for bank trainees consisted of three main sections: (1) general economics; (2) accounting, information processing, organizational behavior and personnel matters; and (3) banking. The first part, for which 60 minutes were allocated, contained 36 multiple-choice questions dealing with topics such as economic policy, supply and demand, taxation, and contracts. The second part, which students had 90 minutes to complete, also consisted of 36 multiple-choice questions, many of which dealt with actual situations. The third section was divided into two parts — Part I presented three practical problems to be solved using a mixture of complete sentences and key concepts (90 minutes) and Part II had 26 mostly multiple-choice questions about specific aspects of banking (60 minutes).
Students said that they begin preparing for the completion exam 3 to 4 months before the date of administration. Since many vocational teachers serve on exam committees, they are in a good position to give their students advice and practical tips. Most teachers use old exams for review, which is considered to be a practical approach to preparation. One teacher showed us a compilation of exams for the last 5 years filed by subject. The oral part of the exam might consist of the following: a customer comes to the counter, says his grandfather has died, and that he wants to close out the account. What should be done? What procedures should be followed? Students who pass the examination receive a certificate of proficiency, which is a license to practice the profession for which they have spent the last several years preparing.
One of the problems facing the Berufsschule and other vocational schools is the decline in the number of trainees and the consequent-shrinking enrollment in vocational schools. An increasing number of students want to study at a university because of the prestige factor, their parents? urging, or both. This trend is especially pronounced in eastern Germany, where the Gymnasium is the most desirable type of secondary school.
Another recent problem affecting the dual education system is the reduction in the number of training slots as a result of the slowing economy and corporate mergers.
Germany's schools fall under the cultural jurisdiction of the 16 individual states, and the cultural agendas in the states vary considerably. In order to establish comparable standards and ensure that certifications are recognized across the country, the Conference of Ministers of Education of all the states (KMK) regularly makes resolutions and regulations, which are agreed upon by all of its members. Beyond the minimum standards set by the KMK, each Ministry of Education creates detailed curricula for all subjects taught in school. The curricula for practical studies in the vocational schools (Berufsschulen) are developed by committees, which include representatives from industry, the trades, trade unions, and vocational teachers.
Many differences exist in education policy among the states. Political parties in power generally determine the direction that the education system takes, and conservative states such as Baden-Württemberg generally work to maintain high standards in the schools, while more liberal states such as Nordrhein-Westfalen work towards equal access to education for all students. This difference is expressed in tough entrance requirements for higher school types in more conservative states and by the support for nontracked alternatives in more liberal states. Some of the more conservative states also have centralized examinations for the Abitur and other completion exams. Many teachers and parents expressed approval of centralized examination procedures. Centralized exams were also widely praised for maintaining comparability from one school to the next and for preventing students from being stigmatized by their school's reputation.
The most obvious expressions of education policy at the school level are in textbook selection and in the number of periods allotted to each subject. The state Ministry of Education provides a list of textbooks approved for the schools, and from this the teachers' council within the school makes the final selection of textbooks. Periods allotted to each subject vary by school type and grade in all states and by course of studies in some school types, such as the Gymnasium and the Realschule.
A pivotal time for students in the German school system is the transition from the Grundschule to one of the differentiated lower secondary schools. This takes place after the fourth grade in most states. Despite the option of the Förderstufe and the Gesamtschule in most states, most teachers and parents felt that if students showed clear promise in the fourth grade, they should transfer to the Gymnasium or Realschule directly.
In some states, grade averages from the 4th year of Grundschule determine recommendation to the higher-level school forms, while in others, they serve as guidelines, and can be weighed with the student?s personality and work habits. In the decision on school attendance, teachers make recommendations and parents have the final word. Schools at the lower secondary level, however, can also require students to go to a lower school form if they perform poorly in the first semester of fifth grade.
The three traditional school forms at the secondary level aim to serve the different needs of their students. The Hauptschule gives students a more practical, general education, which should prepare them for vocational education after the ninth grade. The Realschule gives students a more advanced general education without losing applicability and prepares students for the Realschule completion exam (required in some states) and vocational education after the 10th grade. Students with good grades on the Realschule completion exam can also attend upper-level Gymnasium. The Gymnasium gives student a more theoretical, academic education, which prepares them for university study. In addition to the traditional three-tiered school system, some states have a school form created in the 1960's called the Gesamtschule (comprehensive school). The Gesamtschule only tracks students in some subjects and offers students the opportunity to complete a Hauptschule, Realschule, or (in some cases) the Gymnasium completion exam. Most parents and teachers expressed satisfaction with the traditional three-tiered school system, while the Gesamtschule was considered more controversial.
Reform movements in the German school system received mixed reviews from the individuals we interviewed. In one state, teachers said that political changes of power led to upheaval in the education system, confusing teachers and pressuring them to change long-established teaching habits. Nationwide reforms, such as the reform of upper-level Gymnasium, have also drawn some criticism, but since the states retain cultural sovereignty, they implement the KMK's recommendations to the extent they deem appropriate.
Most students in Gymnasien expressed satisfaction with their education. In contrast, many teachers lamented a decline in student quality in the Gymnasium and the Realschule since their own youth. Relative enrollment in the two higher school forms, Gymnasium and Realschule, has been steadily increasing since World War II, as people believe that these two school forms lead to greater vocational and academic opportunities.
Because of budget shortages since unification with East Germany in 1990, those interviewed at all school forms complained of cuts in funding both for school supplies, which are supplied by the locality, and in instruction periods for students, which are funded by the state. Since teachers are civil servants of the state, they cannot legally be fired or demoted, so cutting instructional periods is the only way to save on state-level school budgets. Neither the KMK nor the state ministries have scaled back their standards on course curricula, however, and many teachers complained that the time allotted was no longer enough to cover all the material.
Many teachers also described a changing social landscape in Germany, saying it had a profound effect on both the way that they teach and the material that they can cover in class. In some schools visited, nonnative German speakers comprised over 60 percent of the student body, making weak German skills a major problem for teachers. Both teachers and students also said that parents are increasingly unable or unwilling to help their children with homework, which puts these students at a disadvantage. In higher grades, however, especially in the Hauptschule, teachers described immigrant students as harder working and more dedicated than their German counterparts.
Overall, parents, teachers, and students were satisfied with the effectiveness of the German school system. They felt it provided sufficient preparation for either an apprenticeship in the dual system or studies in higher education. Although tracking occurs at an early age, many are aware of the alternative routes to higher education, which can be taken following graduation from a lower school level. Most felt that tracking was appropriate and correct, and that each school type offered an approach and content that was appropriate to its student population.
[Chapter 3 - Individual Differences and the German Education System (Part 1 of 4)]