A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

Chapter 2
The Development and Implementation of
Education Standards in Germany
(Part 4 of 5)

The Gymnasium

Gymnasien tend to be more formal than the other school types and are staffed by teachers who enjoy the various disciplines more than the study of education. A teacher from South State explained that "the Gymnasium teacher does not understand his role as ensuring that the kids learn something. He merely provides them with an opportunity to learn something. This is the old Humboldt ideal of education."

The interviews with students confirmed that most German young people who attend a Gymnasium tend to be high achievers who are as industrious and conscientious as they are articulate. They also generally have the full support of their parents. While many have fathers and mothers with a college education, others have parents who learned a trade but want their children to study at a university--an opportunity that the parents were denied.

Differences Between States

As the elite institution in Germany's K-13 education system, the Gymnasium's mission is to educate exceptional students who plan to continue on to a university education. Yet, it was clear from our interviews and visits to schools in Central and South State that the term "exceptional" takes on very different meanings in each state. These differences reflect the educational priorities of two political parties: Social Democrats (SPD), who wish to increase access to education, and Christian Democrats (CDU), who believe that the only way to maintain high standards is to retain a clearly delineated and highly selective tripartite system. As a result, the standards for admission to the Gymnasium are higher in South State than in Central State.

When a student moves from northern Germany to South State, he may have to repeat a class. But if a central German student moves to northern Germany, he can skip a year. (A parent/teacher from South City)

These variations are to some extent the result of differences between urban areas (such as the city of Hamburg) and agricultural areas (such as rural Bavaria), but political viewpoints also play a large role in the rate of graduation from the Gymnasium. Conservative Bavaria with its centralized Abitur places a premium on rigorous academic selection, which contributes to the widespread perception that the Abitur in Bavaria is more demanding than it is in other states. A spokesman for the Bavarian Ministry of Culture stated in a recent newspaper article that, "We still have an effective education system which doesn't send just anyone to the Gymnasium." At the other end of the political spectrum, Hamburg attempts to provide as many options for academic advancement as it possibly can with its emphasis on equality of opportunity. Among eighth-graders in Hamburg, 15 percent went to a Hauptschule and 20 percent to a Realschule in 1993, while 24 percent attended a Gesamtschule and 35 percent a Gymnasium. Among Bavarian eighth-graders, the figures are quite different: 38 percent attended a Hauptschule in 1993, 30 percent a Realschule, and 27 percent a Gymnasium (Statistisches Bundesamt 1993).

Research conducted at Gymnasien in Central and South City revealed a clear example of variations between the states in terms of how education standards are established, implemented, and assessed.

While Gymnasien in Central State are theoretically comparable in terms of course offerings and quality of education, notable differences do exist. Some Gymnasien are more demanding than others, and, since the Gymnasien in Central Germany construct their own Abitur exam questions, the difficulty of the Abitur can vary with the standards of the school. As a result, urban students seeking to obtain an easy Abitur may choose to attend a Gymnasium with lower standards, while those interested in achieving an Abitur from a highly regarded Gymnasium may enroll in a Gymnasium that has an established reputation for rigorous standards. Although obtaining the Abitur with the best grades possible is the ultimate goal for most Gymnasium students, those who graduate from a highly regarded Gymnasium have an advantage in obtaining vocational training, entrance to a university, and a job.

In contrast to the variability that can be found among Gymnasium in Central State, South State monitors academic achievement within and between Gymnasium in an attempt to ensure comparability. All Gymnasium students within the state take the same Abitur exam, which is developed by the Ministry of Education. This central exam provides the primary mechanism of monitoring and controlling standards of education at the Gymnasium level. East City's state has also adopted a system with a centralized Abitur and curricula specific to the school type.

As one parent stated:

It is really true; the differences are there. The other states do not have a central Abitur. Rather, the Abitur is made by each school, so naturally the schools can adapt their questions to the ability of the students in the schools. The central Abitur results in higher standards, and the students must accommodate themselves to these standards rather than tailoring the Abitur to the students.

In Central State, the perception of declining standards among Gymnasien was an overarching theme in most of our conversations with all types of teachers, parents, and students, including eighth-graders. Most respondents looked to South State as the ideal of academic excellence and high standards. A frequent statement was that there have been too many political changes in Central State that have had a negative impact on the schools, teachers, and students. There were comments about children being used as "guinea pigs" for new curricula, the ministry's failed experiments with new structures, and the emphasis on teaching to the "average" children at the expense of the high achievers. Many blamed the Social Democratic government for neglecting the "elite" Gymnasien in favor of the Gesamtschule.

Parents pointed to teacher turnover, political change, and school administration as the main causes for the decline in standards in Central State. The mother of one eighth-grader singled out the state Ministry of Education's "conscious decision to devote more attention and commit more resources to educating the general student population [in the early 1970's] rather than fostering the elite, an idea that did not fit into the political mindset of that period." According to her, this shift in policy meant that the teachers who were hired were less demanding and set lower standards for their students. Another parent from the same school said that standards are now lower, because her son's Gymnasium has become a neighborhood school with children from other social classes and more foreign students. A parent at another Gymnasium in Central State expressed the view that there was a need for more competition among the Gymnasien in that state to avoid a situation which prompts students to transfer from one school to another either in search of a better education or an easier Abitur.

Even those principals and teachers who were supportive of the shift to mass education acknowledged that standards had declined over the years. A principal from Central State estimated that when he was in school between 3 and 5 percent of his peers attended a Gymnasium; now 32 percent (1993) of all 14-year-olds in Central State go to a Gymnasium. A colleague at another Gymnasium in Central State, which prided itself on the notion that "achievement is something worthwhile," spoke admiringly of the higher standards in South State and its central Abitur, noting that in his state not only does each school have its own standards but so does each school district.

Admission to the Gymnasium

One issue which evoked strong feelings among teachers, principals, parents, and students was the transition from Grundschule to the fifth grade (and first year) of the Gymnasium.

Central State. In Central State there are no objective criteria for admission to the Gymnasium. Students must generally have a 2.5 grade point average from elementary school and be recommended by their teacher. By law, parents have the right to place their child in a Gymnasium even without this recommendation. However many of the teachers and parents we spoke to said that they believed that too many children were being pressured into attending schools (Gymnasium and Realschule) in which they did not belong and that this often leads to a decrease in the student's desire to learn. As one Gymnasium teacher explained it, "if students can't cut it, they don't belong there and should be transferred to a less demanding school." Another teacher stated, "Many parents are doing their children a disservice by placing them in situations that they are not capable of handling." Several of the students interviewed shared his view.

Teachers said that they not only felt it was detrimental to the students who were pushed into Gymnasium against their teacher's recommendations but also detrimental to standards at the Gymnasium. One teacher said that because of the influx of students to the Gymnasium, "the grades are getting better and better and the standards lower and lower."

A teacher who had taught a fifth-grade class several years ago said the most important prerequisite for success in Gymnasium math courses is that children are able to write out math problems in an orderly manner and have the courage to ask questions. She realized that many children are being raised in a single parent family and that they may not get the help that they need at home. For this reason, she preferred that children help each other and she gives ungraded quizzes.

Among the students we interviewed, there was a strong awareness that they were at Gymnasium because of their academic talent and promise. When asked why he decided to attend a Gymnasium, one student described himself as "rather intelligent," adding that he had always earned good grades in elementary school and completed the fourth grade with a 1.4 (approximately equivalent to an "A-") average. He went on to say that, since he had little talent for practical work, the decision to continue his education at the Gymnasium was not difficult. Other students mentioned their high level of academic achievement or that they learned easily as reasons for being recommended for a Gymnasium.

South State. In South City, teachers and parents spoke with pride about a rational and objective system that continues to function with great efficiency because it admits only the high achieving students who are capable of performing at the level of the Gymnasium.

We have here in South State a more rigorous selection process. A student who attends one of our Gymnasien can be more certain that he is talented in contrast to Central State, where practically everyone goes to the Gymnasium. There, the Gymnasium does not have an especially good reputation. (Teacher, South City)

Unlike Central State, which offers the Realschule as an option at the fifth grade, all fifth-graders in South State attend either a Hauptschule or a Gymnasium. Promising students can transfer from the Hauptschule to a Realschule or Gymnasium after the sixth grade. A grade point average of 2.3 in German, math, and introductory science is required for admission to any Gymnasium in South State. If a student does not have this average or is a borderline case, he or she can attend a Gymnasium for a trial period of 3 days and take a series of written and oral examinations to determine whether or not he or she is suited for this particular school form. In the past, students could compensate for a bad grade. This is no longer possible at the lower level (grades 5-10). "We would like to signal to lower-level students as soon as possible if they are not suited to the Gymnasium," explained one teacher.

Structure of the Curriculum

Gymnasien are divided into a lower level and an upper level. The lower level incorporates grades 5-10 and the upper level incorporates grades 11-13 (12 in some states). Separate curriculum requirements are established for each of these levels. In addition, Gymnasien often specialize in certain curricular offerings and students can choose among Gymnasien that offer one or more curricular "tracks."

Table 2 -- Weekly periods of instruction in math and science for
grades 5 to 10 in Gymnasium (Central State)

In grades 5–10, the curriculum can vary according to the type of Gymnasium. Curricular specialization’s offered by Gymnasium often include an emphasis on classical languages, mathematics-science, modern languages, or a special arts programs. There is compulsory instruction in core subject areas, including German, two foreign languages, history, geography, mathematics, science, art-music, physical education, and civics, with elective course options available. Generally, at least two and, in some cases, at least three foreign languages are required, including English.

Courses in the upper level of the Gymnasium throughout Germany are taught at basic and advanced levels. The advanced courses treat the material in a more comprehensive manner and are significantly more difficult. For example, students may be required to write and present a report or conduct an experiment of their own design. Basic courses deal with the same subject matter, albeit at a more superficial level, using simple examples to illustrate key concepts and techniques.

In 1972, the Conference of Ministers of Education agreed upon the most comprehensive reform of the upper level in the history of the Gymnasium. This change was motivated by the expansion of the education system and fueled by demands for increased social mobility and a changing economic situation, which required a more highly educated and skilled work force. The purpose of the Bonn Agreement was to align the upper secondary sector more closely with societal demands and the needs of the younger generation.

The Reformed Upper Level of the Gymnasium, which was introduced in most states in the 1976–77 academic year, instituted several major changes in the structure and curriculum of grades 12 and 13. First, with the exception of South State, the upper level was no longer structured according to the traditional areas of specialization, such as math-science or the humanities. The agreement also replaced the existing system of fixed classroom teaching, where each class generally takes the same subjects together, with a system of course instruction, where each student can make her or his own schedule from the courses available. The system of course instruction generally begins in the 11th grade and is fully in place by the 12th grade. Compulsory areas of study include: (I) languages, literature, the arts; (II) social sciences; (III) mathematics, science, and technology; (IV) religion (left to the discretion of the individual states); and (V) physical education. Within these prescribed areas, the curriculum was divided into basic and advanced courses. It was hoped that this would permit a high degree of specialization without sacrificing the benefits of general education.

Basic and advanced courses differ in a number of respects:

• number of periods per week (three periods for basic courses, five to six periods for advanced courses);
• complexity of the subject matter;
• degree of subtlety and abstraction; and
• degree to which the students are expected to master the subject matter, and students’ ability to work independently.

Instead of having to take more than 10 subjects, students in grades 11–13 could individualize their course of study and concentrate on a selected number of subjects covering the 3 fields of study. However, a number of specific curricular requirements were retained. During grades 12 and 13, students are required to take a total of 22 periods per week per semester in both areas I (languages, literature, and fine arts) and III (mathematics–science), and 16 weekly periods in area II (social sciences). Students entering 12th grade must also choose two advanced courses, one of which must be either math or a science. The second can be selected from a group of courses ranging from philosophy to physics to computer science. This specialization of the Abitur qualification drew criticism from the university system, which admits students based on the assumption that the Abitur guarantees a certain level of general education.

In 1987, the KMK amended the Bonn Agreement with the introduction of new minimum requirements for the Abitur. Because the 1972 Reform weighted the advanced courses more heavily than the basic courses, with each advanced course counting 3 times as much as a basic course (45 possible points per course as opposed to 15), students could do poorly in core subjects without their overall grade average suffering as much as it would have previously. The 1987 "Reform of the Reform" attempted to correct this problem by preventing students from dropping "difficult" subjects and obtaining their Abitur in "easy" subjects. The goal of strengthening students' basic knowledge was to be accomplished by revising the entire grading scale to reduce the weight put on the advanced courses, which are now worth 30 points each. Before the 1987 Reform, the final exams, the basic course, and the advanced courses were each allotted 300 total possible points, for a total of 900 points. Since the 1987 Reform, students can earn a total of 840 points, of which 330 points come from basic courses, 210 points from advanced courses, and 300 points from the Abitur examinations.

Thus, the value of basic courses was upgraded, while that of the advanced courses was downgraded. Students who only performed well in advanced courses would earn approximately 30 percent fewer points in the post-1987 Abitur. In conjunction with the revaluation, the number of required basic courses was increased from 20 to 22, while the number of advanced courses was reduced from 8 to 6.

The 1987 Reform also required all students to be continuously enrolled in at least two (three in the Rheinland-Pfalz and the Saarland) of the following subjects: German, a foreign language (chosen before the upper level), or mathematics. At least two semesters of history or another social science subject with a historical focus were also required. Finally, if German is taken as the primary advanced course, one of the four Abitur examination subjects must be math or a foreign language. The following table illustrates the revised requirements introduced in 1988 by the KMK.

Table 3 -- Course requirements for grades 12 and 13 in the reformed upper level of the Gymnasium

Curriculum development. In Central State, the official curriculum guidelines give Gymnasium teachers a high degree of flexibility in determining what to teach. On the basis of these curriculum guidelines, faculty committees concerned with each subject decide what to cover in the course of a year. This is done in consultation with teachers in other grades to ensure a smooth transition from one grade to the next. The resolutions are considered to be binding, but they also give teachers the freedom to respond to the needs and interests of their students. Teachers said that in practice there tends to be more cooperation in the upper level than at the lower level of the Gymnasium.

The instructional goals spelled out in the math curriculum for the upper level of Gymnasium in Central State include fostering subject-related motivation and positive orientation towards math; encouraging creative thinking and originality; stressing the ability to communicate and cooperate; finding practical applications of mathematical concepts; achieving logical sequencing of mathematical concepts, facts and processes; improving work attitudes; and instilling a knowledge of the limits and possibilities of calculators and other technological aids. In addition, the curriculum guidelines feature a discussion of the differences between advanced and basic courses, an inventory of mandatory Abitur-related topics, and course descriptions for grades 11, 12, and 13. Each course description contains a brief description, student prerequisites, topics, and corresponding comments.

Most teachers in Central State shared the view that the general nature of the official curriculum makes it impossible to cover everything. One teacher estimated that were he to cover systematically the entire curriculum in his subjects, it would amount to the equivalent of three to four semesters of university-level study. This particular teacher has worked with colleagues in chemistry and math to create a comprehensive "coursebook" which details the curriculum for both subjects. This document was last revised in 1991 and is based mainly on the textbooks.

Since there is no accountability in this particular state in the form of a centralized Abitur, teacher evaluations, or ministry oversight, teachers and parents said that the quality of instruction depends upon the standards of the school and the knowledge, enthusiasm, and motivation of the its teachers. One teacher of math and physics remained in touch with former students now studying medicine, computer science, and economics, among other subjects, which gives her an idea of the quality of preparation they received in math in her class. She noted with pride that one former student studying computer science still reviewed her handouts, while another economics student reported to her that he had learned nothing new in the first three semesters of his program.

In South State, the Ministry of Education organizes work teams that have the task of examining particular aspects of the curriculum, and therefore the teaching plans and standards are developed with the assistance of teachers who are members of these teams. One teacher described the process in this way:

It is not so that the teaching plan falls from the sky or is simply imposed from above. It is developed in a grassroots way, from the bottom up based on the insights of the practitioners. But once it has been completed, it becomes mandatory.

The ministry surveys teachers to ascertain what they were unhappy with and where they would like evolve into new curricula. The newly revised curricula do not have as many topics as before, and teachers said that there is ample time to cover the material. The curriculum in South State is revised on average every 5 years, depending upon the necessity for change. Some topics remain unchanged while others need to be modified to keep up with changes in the knowledge base of that discipline. The comprehensive math and physics curriculum for all grades of the Gymnasium was last revised in 1991 and became effective from 1992-94, depending upon the grade.

The curriculum not only tells teachers what needs to be covered but guides them in how this material should be divided in each school year. For example, an advanced 12th-grade course description on analysis indicates the total number of required instructional periods (about 68), course content by subcategory, and accompanying examples. Teachers informed us that the current curriculum is not as detailed as it used to be, but that it does include the required learning objectives. This is a result of the central Abitur, which ensures that all Gymnasien in South State are provided with the same preconditions for taking the Abitur exams. How teachers achieve these goals is their prerogative.

Math and Science at the Gymnasium

Math is one of the primary subjects in the Gymnasium. One teacher in Central State highlighted the practical value of learning mathematics as a means of reinforcing and developing creativity and logical thinking skills, suggesting that it be required on all Abitur exams. He compared math to music in which one masters an instrument through practice and hard work. "Have you played your etudes 5 or 10 times per day?" is a question this teacher asks his students. Teachers also talked about the usefulness of a solid foundation in math for learning in other areas and how it was preferable to learn the basics in the Gymnasium because they are not taught at the university.

As in math classes in the Realschule and Hauptschule, the emphasis at the Gymnasium is on how to solve the problem rather than finding the correct solution. Observations of 11th-grade advanced math classes exemplified both the high level of instruction and the quality of students in such classes. In these courses, teachers usually did not have to wait long for students to respond to questions. Occasionally, a student would ask a question and the teacher would answer it or refer it to the class and encourage students to discuss it amongst themselves. One teacher combined a theoretical discussion of content with an occasional commentary about the importance of thoroughly justifying one’s answers. If students were not paying attention, teachers did not hesitate to use either humor or subtle embarrassment as a means of admonishing them. Class participation was an important part of a student's grade. In the schools we visited, one-third of the grade in advanced math classes was based on oral participation in the class and two-thirds on two tests given in the course of the semester.

Teachers noted that although the reasons for differential enrollments in advanced math and science classes were not clear, males generally far outnumbered female students in advanced math and science courses. Out of a class of 14 advanced math students at one Gymnasium in Central State, there were only 2 girls, much to the dismay of the female teacher.

Effects of the budget crisis. A problem commonly cited by Gymnasien teachers in Central, East, and South State was an ongoing budget crisis that necessitated a reduction in instructional periods for a number of courses. (Budgetary problems are the result of a sluggish economy and the high cost of unification.) The lack of funds was widely viewed as limiting the effectiveness and quality of instruction. In one case, 10th-grade math in a central German Gymnasium had been reduced from 4 to 3 weekly periods. Similarly, an advanced 11th-grade math course in a southern German Gymnasium had been reduced from six to five periods. One teacher in Central State traced the changes in class size since 1979, when there were 40 students in a class, to 20-25 students per class in the 1980's, and 30 or more students per class in the current school year. Last year, her school was forced to consolidate 9th grade class from 5 to 4 with around 30 students each. One 8th-grade math class had 31 students in a classroom designed for 20-25. The result was a lack of focus on the work at hand and on the teacher, who spent most of his time at the front of the room. A related problem is the mismatch between supply and demand. For example, one Gymnasium had too many geography teachers and not enough French teachers. This is a problem of distribution and deployment that can only be solved by transferring teachers to another school, a solution which is considered problematic at best.

Textbooks

Teachers said that math and science textbooks are used mainly for reference and review purposes, not as an integral part of the course. A math teacher in a South City Gymnasium explained that the knowledge that he wants his students to retain is on the board; the book serves as a supplement to which he can refer his students when he wants them to review the material he has covered on the board. Upper-level Gymnasium students confirmed teachers' lack of reliance on texts for presentation of the curriculum. According to one 12th-grader, chemistry and physics textbooks were rarely used; rather, the emphasis was on in-class experiments and discussion of theory. He also noted that his teacher frequently covered material that did not appear in the textbook, and the student pointed to the need for more coordination between teachers of consecutive grades so as to avoid overlap and repetition.

A textbook for seventh-grade math in one Gymnasium covered such topics as proportionality, percentages, interest rates, probability, introduction of rational numbers, addition and subtraction of rational numbers, multiplication and division of rational numbers, congruence and symmetry, area and volume.

Homework

Most of the Gymnasium students we spoke with spent about 2 hours a day on homework, including Saturdays. For example, one upper-level student said she normally spent 1 hour reviewing the day's work and an additional hour preparing for the next class. Another student, an eighth-grader, explained that he had homework every day in all subjects except music and biology. It normally took him 2 hours each day to complete his assignments. He observed that to get "1s" and "2s," Gymnasium students have to spend at least 2 hours each day on homework.

A 12th-grade student noted that his teachers regularly assigned homework in math and physics and rarely in chemistry. In order to "stay on the ball," in his words, students have to spend time at home reviewing the material and checking everything over. In grades 7 through 9, this student estimated that he spent about 2 hours per day on homework; in the 11th and 12th grades he spent 30 minutes to 1 hour on review and preparation and 1–2 hours on homework assignments.

As in the other school form homework is discussed and corrected but not graded. As a means of checking homework and as an incentive for the students to do the work, teachers randomly select students to go over an assignment in class.

Exams and Grading

Gymnasium students in both states have between two and four in-class exams per semester in the primary subjects of English, German and math; two per semester in biology; and one or none per semester in secondary subjects, such as music, geography, and history. Teachers periodically ask students to review a homework assignment orally and then grade them on their presentation. However, oral exams function as an increasingly important assessment tool in the 13th grade, as students begin to prepare for the Abitur exam.

While the number of exams differed from school to school in Central State, they were centrally prescribed in South State. For example, seventh-graders in South State have to take five written tests per year in the primary subjects, while upper-level students take four tests per year. Teachers and principals in South State noted that the exams are centrally prescribed in order to achieve comparability throughout the state.

In both Central and South State students receive report cards twice a year. The reports include grades for the individual disciplines and general comments about students' cooperation, behavior, and ability in the 5th through 10th grades. The grading formula in Central State is 50 percent for oral participation and 50 percent for exams and quizzes. What concerned one teacher of math and chemistry is that this formula penalizes students who do not participate in class but who always earn 1's on exams. The same teacher and several of his colleagues at other Gymnasien rejected the official grading policy on the basis that it works to the disadvantage of academically talented students. Instead of giving a reticent student a poor grade, he assigns him a 1 or a 2 for the final grade.

Many teachers pointed out that regardless of whether they develop exams on their own or (less frequently) in cooperation with colleagues, they always develop them with an eye on the kinds of problems students will encounter on the Abitur.

Parental Involvement and Expectations

The parents of Gymnasium students we spoke with were without exception well informed and outspoken about a variety of issues, including the general state of education in Germany, school standards and curriculum, and the quality of the teachers. While some were more active than others in official school activities, all were keenly interested and deeply involved in their son's or daughter's education. In addition, they were all aware of the value of the Abitur as a credential that opened doors to university study and the competitive vocational training opportunities necessary for advancement in professional-level jobs.

One mother who was a certified social worker had always wanted to attend a Gymnasium, but her parents did not allow her to enroll. "My parents said 'You're a girl, you're going to get married, you don't need it.' That explains my circuitous route to the kind of postsecondary education that I had envisioned for myself." Another mother, who works part time in a bank and whose husband is a salesman, was not sure if her son would attend a university, but she wanted him to complete an apprenticeship in the dual system of vocational education after his Abitur so that he would have a credential and a means of earning a living. He would then have the option of pursuing a university degree. For another parent who had a Realschule qualification and worked in a bank, the Gymnasium offered the most opportunities as a springboard for future study and career opportunities for his children.

Transition to Postsecondary Education: The Abitur

There is the problem that all schools are supposed to give children an equal education. That is, all the Gymnasien should be equal in quality; all the Hauptschulen should be equal in quality according to their own standards. And, in South State, we take the next logical step and say that if they are all equal, then we can administer a central examination. (Teacher, South City)

Students living near Central State who are not doing well in school and who have fears of not passing the Abitur exam will go to a school over the border and pass the Abitur with flying colors. Naturally, this gives one pause. In Central State, there is no central Abitur. (Parent, South City)

An article recently appeared in a popular German newspaper asking in jest whether students in Bavaria are dumber than their peers from around the country. This question was raised in reference to 1993-94 statistics showed that Bavaria had the fewest Abitur holders (20 percent) in Germany. (Die Welt 1995) In contrast, the city-state of Hamburg claimed the highest rate of graduation from Gymnasium: 33 percent of the age cohort finished their Abitur in 1993. Other states near Bavaria also show higher rates, ranging from 25 percent in Baden-Württemberg and Nordrhein-Westfalen to 27 percent in Hessen in 1991; during the same year, Bavarian rates were at 18 percent (Sekretariat der Kultusministerkonferenz 1993). The new states of eastern Germany had an average rate of 24 percent in 1994, up from 19 percent in 1992.

The development and administration of Abitur examinations. The KMK has established uniform examination standards for 33 subjects, which cover the academic knowledge that Abitur examinations are supposed to test. The 33 subjects include basic tests in every subject offered at the Gymnasium, ranging from Russian to psychology and computer programming, and advanced tests in those subjects which can be taken at the advanced level. The following guidelines from the national standards for biology describe the type of knowledge and skills that are to be tested on the Abitur examinations:

1. The recall of memorized knowledge. This includes data, facts, laws, formulas, statements and the description and application of learned and practiced techniques and procedures in a given area. Examination topics can consist of a definition covered in a class, a description of graphs and experiments, or the diagramming of a pedigree based on a given text.

2. The independent application of knowledge to a comparatively new situation. This encompasses either questions that have been rephrased or modified procedures. Examples range from the discussion of previously unknown experimental results and the description of the planning and construction of chromosome maps to the application of cybernetic models to ecological systems.

3. Complex analysis and interpretation. This area emphasizes a systematic and planned approach to dealing with complex issues, with the goal of producing independent interpretations, conclusions, and explanations. This could include the independent development of hypotheses from the results of several experiments, development of a flow chart on the basis of given ecological findings, and a critical methodological discussion of specific procedures.

Candidates are examined in four subjects, including two advanced subjects. One of the four exams must be oral. The basic and advanced written exams generally last 3 and 4 hours, respectively, while the fourth oral exam may last 30 minutes, not including preparation time. Exams are conducted by the student's current teacher in the presence of three others, including a recorder, another teacher for the same subject, and a chairperson. The entire Abitur exam is a rigorous and demanding rite of passage, which lasts up to 14 hours. The exams are taken during the second half of the 13th grade in most states but toward the end of the 12th grade in some states in eastern Germany.

The Abitur tests students on material which they have covered through the first semester of the 13th grade. Since it is assumed that the Abitur should be a test of what the students have learned in class, a completion exam also assumes a certain amount of articulation and cooperation between teachers of the same subject in different grades.

In states that have a centralized Abitur system, every Gymnasium receives the exams in sealed envelopes from the state ministry of education on the day of the exam. One consequence of this system is that teachers must cover all of the prescribed material, which leaves little time for lengthy discussions about a particular topic. In Central State the advantage of the school-based Abitur is that there is more flexibility and room for experimentation.

In Central State, selected teachers write two possible sets of problems, a task that normally takes them 2 or 3 days to complete. In addition, they write a description of their expectations of student performance for each part of the question as well as their evaluation criteria. One example of a proposed basic physics exam included the following course topics from the relevant semesters:

The teacher submitted these two summaries of the proposed topics and types of problems:

• The path of electrically charged particles in an electrical field. Physics of the atomic shell, hydrogen spectrum.

• Movement of electrically charged particles in a magnetic field (Hall effect). Radioactivity and dosage measurement.

Each problem was accompanied by four questions or tasks, along with a description of expectations of student performance for each part of each question, instructional prerequisites, and remarks. (Additional proposed problems and actual Abitur exams in mathematics, biology, chemistry, and physics can be found in appendix A [PDF format only].)

These questions are submitted by selected teachers to the school district office for approval. If they are deemed too easy or too difficult by examination officials, the teachers are asked to revise them. As in the other states, teachers find out on the day of the test administration which tasks were selected for the exam. Two graders usually meet to discuss grading criteria and grades. Before recording the results, teachers generally check the exams again to see if they overlooked anything that might benefit the examinee. For example, a teacher may give points for quality of thought even if the calculations were incorrect in a specific answer.

Some Abitur questions are inevitably more difficult than others. One teacher of math and physics told us with pride about a rumor circulating in school that her Abitur math exams were more difficult than those at other schools. However, she also pointed out that it makes no sense to talk about the difficulty of an examination without first being familiar with the nature and extent of the preparation. All exam candidates in mathematics should be familiar with three different areas: calculus (differential and integral), linear algebra, and probability and statistics.

While the principal of one Gymnasium in Central City admitted to having colleagues who would prefer to have a centralized Abitur, he doubted its effectiveness, saying that the exam should evolve from classroom instruction and not be developed on the basis of a checklist of items to be covered. "Only the subject teacher knows what each group is capable of accomplishing and learning in a given period of time," he observed. He did admit that there was the possibility of cheating and that it does occur, although he has not been able to prove it. Teachers also acknowledged the danger of using materials based on school-specific instruction as a way for teachers to conceivably prepare their students for the questions, which they themselves submitted. The legitimacy of the process derives from the way in which exam questions are compared and evaluated by colleagues from other schools who try to weigh and evaluate the problems and tasks submitted to the school district office. While it is impossible to eliminate the subjective element, the integrity of each exam is maintained through the ever-changing team of reviewers.

In South State, Abitur questions are organized by the Ministry on the basis of a survey sent to all Gymnasien at the beginning of each school year. For example, the Ministry asks schools to submit exam questions for the basic course in physics. Teachers must then develop a question, guidelines for evaluation, and an assessment of the question's difficulty. They must also decide whether it is considered routine knowledge, a transfer of knowledge (application of knowledge from one area to another), or whether it requires independent thought. One teacher described the process as follows:

Here in South State there is a very detailed plan. On a given day in May there is the advanced examination in physics from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. The questions are sent the day before in a specially sealed envelope. At all the schools the kids get the same Abitur exam. The questions are opened up on the morning of the exam. The teachers look through the questions and they select one from two alternatives that they want to use for the school. The correction guidelines show what is expected of the student and how the exam should be graded. Our physics Abitur is the same as in other cities throughout the state.

Teachers interviewed were unanimous in their view that the centralized Abitur has greater integrity than the decentralized system in Central State and other states. One teacher explained:

If we could write our own Abitur exams, then we could leave out the topics that we did not get to in class. We could, for example, leave out atomic energy and the exam would focus on the other topics that the students dealt with in class. But in our state, the teachers do not have this luxury. They do not know what will be included in the exam at the end of the year.

In fact, the curriculum in each subject becomes more specific the closer one comes to the Abitur. Faculty members grade the papers using the evaluation guidelines supplied by the Ministry, an approach that allows schools to maintain a modicum of control over the examination process in spite of the centralized Abitur.

Adherence to the state-mandated curriculum is ensured by a ministerial representative who evaluates the comparability of standards throughout the state. This is accomplished by visiting schools and reviewing exercises and tests, along with a subject specialist whose job it is to assess the level of difficulty. If there are irregularities, the ministry official will speak with the school leadership and attempt to influence the school practices. Grading information is stored in a computer database, thereby enabling the Ministry to evaluate averages for a particular subject or even a specific question on the Abitur exam and to compare teachers of the 12th and 13th grades. For example, the existence of a high grade point average and low grades on the written Abitur would raise a red flag.

Preparation for the Abitur exam. Students generally begin preparing for the Abitur exam in the second half of the 13th grade by reviewing materials from the courses they have taken in the upper level purchasing published copies of old exams from bookstores, or signing up for commercially available prep courses. Teachers also provide opportunities for in-class practice, including written and oral exams.

One 12th-grader said that he viewed every in-class exam as a building block in preparation for the Abitur exams. He always reviewed exams in order to retain the information, and he stated that he plans to begin reading over his 12th-grade homework and exams starting in the 13th grade.

Admission to Higher Education

The Abitur diploma lists all grades from all courses taken in the upper level of the Gymnasium and a calculation of the number of points attained in 22 basic courses (maximum of 330), 6 advanced course worth 30 points each and 2 worth 15 points (maximum of 210), 4 Abitur exams and 4 Abitur subjects (maximum of 300) for a possible total of 840 points. Students who pass the Abitur, which includes most of those who reach candidacy, receive a certificate attesting to their general qualification for entrance to higher education.

Upper-level Gymnasium students tend to be acutely aware of the criteria for university admission, especially in restricted (numerus clausus) subjects. Because of overcrowding in universities, passing the Abitur is no guarantee of university admission in the high-demand programs. One 12th-grader in Central State who aspired to become a veterinarian knew that she would need a grade point average of 1.6 to have a chance of gaining admission to a university. In addition to the required grade point average, which reflects coursework and Abitur exam results, this student was also aware that she would have to take a specialized exam for all medical school applicants.

In Germany's centrally coordinated university admissions process, student applications are treated differently, depending upon the state in which they received their Abitur. This is an attempt to compensate for differing standards in Gymnasien around the country. The student from Central State receives a "point" in addition to his grade point average (a grade point of 1.4 would be counted as 1.6, slightly worse). In other states, the student's grade point average remains unchanged. Students from South State are given a slight advantage; for example, a grade average of 2.0 would be counted as 1.8, slightly better. Despite this attempted compensation, one southern German teacher exclaimed that with university admission determined by grade point, "the students from South State are punished for being too good. This is the schizophrenia of cultural sovereignty. There is not a (national) ministry which is responsible for education in all of the states."

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[Chapter 2 (Part 3 of 5)]

[Chapter 2 (Part 5 of 5)]