Archived: The Educational System in Germany: Case Study Findings; Chapter 2

Elementary education represents both the easiest, most relaxed school time that children experience in Germany and a time when school performance is decisive in influencing future school paths. Two main concerns confront education policymakers: maintaining curricular standards in the Grundschule (elementary school) while at the same time providing an equal foundation in education for each child.

Curriculum Development and Implementation

All curricular, or "framework" guidelines (Rahmenrichtlinien) for the Grundschule in Central State are developed by an institute affiliated with the state Ministry of Education called the Institute for Educational Planning and School Development. The curricular guidelines, which are binding, distinguish between units, learning objectives, content, and instructional periods. They provide a uniform basis for instruction within the Grundschule. However, teachers are permitted to revise and supplement the content outlined in the curricular guidelines to suit their particular school.

In South State, detailed curricula are issued for the Grundschule. A typical overview of a particular subject would indicate topics to be covered and the estimated periods of instruction per topic, followed by a list of learning objectives and content preceded by a short description of what should be achieved. Also included would be suggestions of the types of activities, including homework, and the forms of assessment teachers should use to accomplish the stated objectives. South State also employs a system of accountability to ascertain the extent to which teachers are achieving the goals set by the official curricula.

Teachers we spoke with indicated that the manner in which the state?s curricular guidelines are put into practice differs from school to school, often depending upon the social, economic, and cultural background of each school?s students. Teachers base their lesson plans on the official curricular guidelines (e.g., grammatical elements to be covered, number of essays to be written, and mathematical concepts to be presented). However, it is left up to the individual teacher to determine along with colleagues the topics to which they will devote the most time in class.

Since textbooks in Germany must meet curriculum guidelines provided by the state's Ministry, teachers said these textbooks could be seen, at least in theory, as a reflection of the curriculum guidelines. Therefore, teachers can refer to the appropriate chapters of the text in order to develop their lesson plans. One teacher estimated that 70 percent of her instruction in most subjects is based on textbooks, with a somewhat higher percentage than this in math. The remaining materials consist of photocopied handouts or materials, which she purchased herself from publishing companies that design materials appropriate for children. These materials encourage independent work and provide answer keys so that children can correct their own work. Although out-of-pocket costs can range from $75 to $150 per year, according to one veteran teacher, schools are unable to reimburse teachers because of budgetary constraints.

One reason teachers said that they use supplementary materials is to allow students to proceed at their own pace. Moreover, teachers said that some textbooks were not well suited for children, and other books, such as the German text, portray a society that no longer exists. One Grundschule teacher said:

Teachers at a school with a large percentage of foreign students also stated that they simplify and modify the content to suit the needs and interests of their students.

Mathematics. As determined by Ministry guidelines, Grundschulen devote the most instructional periods, five per week, to math and German. (Introduction to the sciences, Sachkunde, ranks second with 4 weekly periods.)

An analysis of a unit plan based on the curriculum for fourth-grade mathematics in East State revealed many similarities to the fourth-grade curriculum of Central State in terms of sequence and content. The curriculum proposed by the Ministry in East State was divided into four areas: arithmetic, measurement, word problems, and geometry. Each area contained a brief description of what students are expected to know, as well as a listing of specific concepts and skills in one column and sample exercises and problems in the other.

Teacher criticisms of curricular guidelines. There were several criticisms which Grundschule teachers expressed concerning curricular guidelines:

Textbooks

The various Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs regularly publish lists of school textbooks approved in their states. In addition, the Ministries publish the regulations for the approval of texts, information on the introduction and use of textbooks, and information on the criteria employed by examiners appointed by the ministry. Since the states' Ministries monitor and approve textbooks for use in schools, the locus of control remains at the state level and the role of the KMK is minimal. However, KMK resolutions for textbook usage stipulate that textbooks may be approved if they are consistent with federal laws and the constitution and meet the prevailing content, didactic and methodological demands of the respective state Ministry of Education.

Textbook publishers indicate in their brochures the states in which each textbook is approved. Schools are then able to choose from a list of textbooks approved by their state Ministry.

In the Grundschule we visited in Central State, the teachers of a particular grade selected their textbooks through a process of unanimous decisionmaking. If teachers disagreed on the selection of a textbook, they then considered others. The entire process of textbook approval could last from several months to half a year, and teachers said that because of recent budget reductions and the rising costs, textbooks must now be used for longer periods of time once they are adopted. All school materials, including textbooks, are provided to students free of charge.

Homework

In Central State, the state Ministry of Education guarantees by law the right of each student to play and relaxation and limits the amount of homework that can be assigned. The type and difficulty of the homework are to be adjusted to the achievement level of the students, their age, and any extenuating circumstances, such as lack of parental support. It is expected that assignments be made in such a way that students can complete them in a reasonable period of time without outside help. Students in grades one and two should spend no more than 30 minutes a day on their homework, while children in the third and fourth grade can spend up to 45 minutes. Homework may also not be assigned over the weekend. Teachers reviewed homework each day in class and periodically checked the students' notebooks.

Most teachers said that they assign homework every day as a means of reviewing what has been covered in class. In grades three and four, homework is also assigned in preparation for the next topic in the curriculum. More generally, homework is also viewed as preparation for higher levels of schooling, especially with mainly native speakers of German, where over half of all children go on to the most difficult school form, the Gymnasium, following their 4th year at the Grundschule. This view reflects the wishes of many parents. Both parents and teachers view homework as a means of instilling a sense of responsibility in children and believe that it helps students to become better organized and develop good work habits that will serve them well in school and in life. In the upper grades of Grundschule, homework is also seen as a way of covering material that can no longer be reviewed in school because of large class size. (The prescribed limit for elementary school classes in Central State is 25 students.) One teacher said that she checks her students' homework "to show that she is interested and that they have not done the work for nothing."

Guidelines from the Ministry of Education in Central State suggest that the Grundschule set up a homework assistance service which permits German and foreign children to work on their homework together (Regelungen, p. 46). Grundschulen, where most children can count on their parents' help with academic problems, offers homework supervision in a nearby public building for children having difficulties with their homework or overall schoolwork. This service, which is coordinated by volunteer mothers and offered two afternoons a week for a total of four periods, is utilized mainly by low-achieving foreign children who are having problems with the German language. For some, especially those from large families, it represents a quiet place to study and to hang out until one of their parents comes home from work. Teachers and parents pointed out that relatively few German children take advantage of this service. A fourth-grade teacher at a school with many foreign students oversees a similar program for all fourth-graders who require additional help. The group meets for 1 hour 2 days a week.

Grading and Examinations

As with homework, textbooks, and curricular guidelines, the state Ministry of Education clearly spells out grading, examinations, and promotion policies. In Central State, the Ministry's guidelines state:

The number and length of the exams, which are set by Ministry directives for each grade, are consistently translated into practice at a school-based level. In addition, teachers in Central State indicated that they are required to inform students at the beginning of the school year about the method of grading for oral and written performance, and parents must be officially notified one week before the required exams are to be administered.

Grundschule teachers are not permitted to give any written exams in the first and second grade, and schools issue only one report card at the end of the year for first- and second-grade students. The report card contains information about each student's work habits, special skills and weaknesses, behavior, commitment to learning, and extent of class participation. It does not include letter grades. In addition, teachers are only permitted to make positive comments on a child's report card. The rationale behind this provision is that evaluation is viewed not only as a form of feedback but also of encouragement and motivation. In order to evaluate students' achievement, first-grade teachers may give only practice exams, which last no more than 15 minutes. These often take the form of short dictations in German and quizzes in arithmetic.

In voicing support for these limitations, one teacher likened the process of taking a test to that of enduring the rigors of athletic competition:

A number of parents and teachers, however, expressed concern over the policy of nongrading during the first 2 years of school. They noted that the attempt to ensure a stress-free experience for the children and a gradual initiation into the school environment could make the adjustment to third and fourth grades all the more difficult for some students. In addition, this "double-edged sword" could lead parents to believe that their children are doing reasonably well until they receive a "poor" or failing grade in the third or fourth grade.

The grading scale used throughout the German education system ranges from 1—6. (A "6" is the equivalent of a failing grade.) Teachers are permitted to add a plus or minus in parentheses to provide further differentiation.

One criticism of the grading system among teachers we spoke to was that it is too general and imprecise. A teacher from a school with mainly German natives suggested that elementary schools adopt the same point system of 1–15 used in the upper level of the Gymnasium (grades 11–13 in most of Germany), because it allows teachers to make finer distinctions and differentiate more precisely among students. In the case of a "3," teachers would have the flexibility of assigning a 7, 8, or 9.

Report cards are standardized throughout Central State and in the other states. For third- and fourth-graders, report cards are divided into two categories, one for behavior and work habits and the other for the academic subjects. There is also a section for comments.

Exams prescribed by the Ministry for Grundschule are limited to the two primary subjects: German and mathematics. In Central State, the guidelines prescribe:

Other optional forms of assessment include quizzes and worksheets designed to determine the extent to which students have mastered the subject matter. Teachers said that a student?s course grade is a combination of examination results and classroom participation. One school indicated that they had developed a formula, which allocates 40 percent for written work and 60 percent for quizzes and classroom participation.

As with the other secondary subjects, there is only one written exam per semester for introductory science (Sachkunde). At the schools in Central State, third- or fourth-grade students are also examined in the so-called practical subjects: all students must pass an externally administered examination in bicycle safety and first aid. Other subjects, which appear on the report card in addition to German, math, and introductory science, are handwriting, music, physical education, art, and arts and crafts.

Teachers noted that it is in the third grade that children tend to encounter their first negative experiences in school, since the teachers must now ensure that the "weaker" children meet the standards of the class. Also, in the third and fourth grades, exams serve to confirm for parents whether their children have mastered the material. Students must take in-class examinations home for parents to sign, as proof that they have seen them and are informed about their child's academic progress.

Unlike teachers at the lower secondary schools, Grundschule teachers exhibited a high degree of cooperation with their colleagues in creating examinations and establishing grading criteria. Teachers noted that exam content was often agreed upon with the other teachers in advance to ensure that they all demanded a comparable level of achievement. Exams were typically based on material, which was covered in the preceding month.

Unlike students in some of the other Grundschulen we visited, teachers at a Grundschule with a high percentage of foreign students informed us that most of the exam preparation for their fourth-grade classes took place in class. Teachers did this so as not to give some students an advantage over their classmates whose parents did not or could not help them at home. One teacher at this school said that the best students in her class usually completed the exam in 15 minutes and work on other material until everyone is finished.

Retention and promotion. It is impossible to hold back a student during the first 2 years of Grundschule, unless a student's parents request this because their child has suffered from a long-term illness. Third- and fourth-grade students can be held back if they receive a grade of "poor" in two of the three primary subjects – German, math, and introductory science – or if a student receives a grade of poor (5) or very poor (6) in two of the three major subjects. Students who are held back twice are evaluated to determine if they should be transferred to a special education school.

As in other states, the rate of failure in the Grundschule in Central State is minimal. Even children who do not meet the minimum standards are frequently promoted to the next grade. Teachers with whom we spoke noted that the decision to promote a student may be based on social as well as pedagogical considerations. One teacher justified promoting a foreign child whose work was not "up to par" because he had received no support at home from parents who do not speak German. In reference to such children, she said that they were "not going to become university professors anyway. As long as they can get a job and earn a decent wage. . . ."

Use of Computers

We found that the teachers did not use computers in their classrooms regardless of the demographic composition of the school. Although some of the teachers were aware of studies that suggest that elementary students could benefit from the use of computers, the prevailing sentiment was that they are inappropriate and unnecessary for children in grades one through four. Teachers said that they believed that students should learn the basics in reading, writing, and arithmetic before they begin to work with a technology that they do not understand. They also said that the school provided sufficient opportunities for practice without the use of technology.

Teachers also noted that another reason not to introduce computers in the elementary school is that they discourage cooperative work and communication among children, precisely the skills which the elementary school should be promoting. As one teacher put it,

In discussions with teachers, it was apparent that their familiarity with and affinity towards computers tended to be a product of age; the younger teachers were more familiar and comfortable with the use of computer technology than their older colleagues.

Elementary School Teachers' Views of Student Preparation

The KMK recognizes the wide variability in learning readiness among children entering Grundschule. This is exemplified by its description of teaching language skills in its "Recommendations for Work in the Elementary Schools" (May 6, 1994). "The knowledge and abilities of first-graders in reading and writing vary widely. The elementary school must open the door to elementary written culture." (p. 17).

Parents and teachers said that insufficient preparation for school and lack of social skills were among the most common problems contributing to poor academic performance and asocial behavior among students in Grundschulen. These problems were often attributed to home environments that lacked stability, discipline, and nurturing.

Two of the Grundschule we visited in Central State provided a vivid contrast in terms of their surroundings and their academic achievement levels: Maple Village Elementary is a small suburban school in an upper-middle-class neighborhood. Teachers at Maple Village said that the majority of parents here provided their children with academic assistance, attended school functions, and were generally able to provide many stimulating out-of-school activities for their children. Over half of the students from Maple Village matriculated to Gymnasien in recent years. By contrast, Oakwood Elementary is a large school located in an economically depressed urban setting. Oakwood?s student population is largely made up of children of foreign workers. Many of the children?s parents do not speak German and the students cannot count on their parents for academic assistance. In addition, teachers said many are from families where both parents work outside of the home, and the children are often left alone in the afternoons at the end of the school day. Only a small percentage of students from Oakwood Elementary school matriculate to a Gymnasium. Most continue their lower secondary education at either the local Hauptschule or Realschule.

A teacher at Maple Village had this to say about teaching and curriculum implementation in schools with more heterogeneous student populations:

Many teachers we spoke with said that they believed that social and economic forces have given rise to homes with two working parents, single mothers, and divorce. As a result, parents have less time to spend with their children. This prompted one Maple Village teacher to refer to equality of opportunity in education as an illusion. One teacher described her view in this way:

Another perceived cause of substandard achievement and disruptive behavior is the widespread availability and use of technology as a substitute for human interaction. Teachers said that children expect them to entertain, not teach, and that students were unable to deal with a particular issue or subject in any detail. Several teachers told us stories of parents who gave their children tape cassettes with stories instead of reading aloud. After a rainy weekend, teachers said they know exactly which TV programs the students watched without parental supervision by observing them at play during Monday recess. The amount of time children spent in front of the television and playing computer games was also blamed for underdeveloped small motor, speaking, and writing skills, and the inability to concentrate for any length of time or to behave properly in a group setting.

A veteran teacher at Maple Village recalled a class of 50 students she taught 30 years ago in which there was harmony, quiet, concentration, and a work ethic among her students. While she still discerned a work ethic among the children of today, she thinks they are "burdened by a steady stream of information and stimuli to the extent that they have to shut out that which they are unable to deal with." A colleague echoed her sentiment:

While acknowledging these problems and, the teachers at Oakwood Elementary also pointed to the pressure of growing up in single-parent families, the effects of domestic violence on children's emotional development, the impact of non-German speaking parents on a child's schoolwork, and the occasional conflicts of a multicultural classroom. Without exception, teachers we spoke with strongly believed that the Grundschule were increasingly asked to meet economic, emotional, and intellectual needs not being met elsewhere.

Oakwood Elementary is known as a Brennpunktschule (literally a "flashpoint" school, meaning one with a substantial "at-risk" student population) because of its location in a low-income neighborhood and the problems associated with poverty and neglect. Oakwood teachers said they must frequently address extracurricular concerns before meaningful learning can take place. One teacher spent the beginning of each day with her students assembled in a "breakfast circle" to talk about yesterday's events and resolve conflicts which had arisen either at home or in school. The more dedicated teachers made an effort to keep the lines of communication open with parents by periodically talking with them on the telephone, scheduling appointments in school, or visiting the students' homes.

How teachers learn to deal with these added burdens is often a result of experience rather than formal education. One of the younger teachers told us that she was totally unprepared for the harsh reality of teaching in this type of school. She blamed her lack of preparation on the antiauthoritarian orientation and overly theoretical emphasis of her university training. She and colleagues of her generation were not taught to discipline children and those who did were considered to be "bad" teachers.

She explained that she had allowed herself to become aggressive in the sense of setting limits, which does not mean screaming at children but rather not allowing children to hit or laugh at their classmates.

These views were shared by elementary school teachers in East City, where these problems are compounded by the lingering effects of economic dislocation and political change. The high unemployment rate in former East Germany and the lack of job security has taken its toll on some parents and their children.

Teacher and Parent Expectations

Although Grundschule teachers take their role as educators seriously, what they expect from their students and what they emphasize in the classroom may vary, depending upon the school's student population.

Teachers at Maple Village stressed the link between the Grundschule and secondary education, knowing that the majority of their students will attend the Gymnasium after fourth grade. One teacher pointed to the relationship between the Grundschule and upper level schools, saying that if she lowered her standards, it would have implications for both the lower secondary schools and the students. "The teachers will not be able to teach properly and the students will end up having a piece of paper [a diploma] that is basically worthless," she explained. Another teacher expressed a similar sentiment:

Teachers at Oakwood emphasized the importance of a high quality education as a determinant of future success in general or in vocational education and the world of work, and they were likely to speak of the need to create a positive and relaxed classroom atmosphere, one which encourages children to identify with their school, feel at ease, and feel free to participate. Teachers at Oakwood also said that they tried to emphasize the value of good work habits and a commitment to excellence. In addition, they stated that the role of teachers is not only to transmit knowledge but also to compensate for what is lacking at home.

Parents agreed with teachers' descriptions of the role of school in students' lives. In particular, parents agreed that the Grundschule's role was to prepare children for a smooth transition to a lower secondary school. Parents also said that they saw the Grundschule as a place where children learn to interact with others.

Parental Involvement In the Administration of Schools

Parents are entitled to participate formally in the life of the school and have input on administrative and academic decisions. A KMK resolution from 1980, updated in 1991 to reflect the changes brought about by unification, details the myriad forms of school-parent cooperation as they exist in the different states.

In Central State, there are parent councils for each class, grade, school, school district, and the entire state, all of which play an advisory role. The school council, which the conservative Christian Democrats have promised to abolish if they return to power, is a consultative body of teachers, parents, and students. Its purview ranges from the organization of school life and teaching to the sponsorship of events outside school but under school supervision. The school council also concerns itself with general education and teaching issues, such as the suitability of textbooks, schoolwork and homework requirements, and grading criteria, as well as measures related to the physical plant of the school. Most of the parents we spoke with were unsure of what types of decisions they were empowered to make. One Maple Village mother said that too many parents like to interfere in the work of teachers and that too many decisions are placed at the feet of parents that should really be made by teachers and administrators. For example, parents are not especially well equipped to decide whether English should be offered or what textbooks will best fit the curriculum.

Classroom Observation (Oakwood)

The following observation of a fourth-grade class was similar to others observed in terms of seating arrangement, activities, number of recesses, degree of cooperation and mutual support among students, and the emphasis on problem solving.

This class of 20 students was seated at 4 tables situated throughout the room, which was equipped in a spartan manner. While the walls had been freshly painted by parent volunteers and teachers, the desks and chairs were in poor condition. The class was comprised of a culturally diverse group of children from Austria, Croatia, India, Italy, Morocco, Turkey, Vietnam, and other countries. This reflects the larger student population at Oakwood, where native German children make up only 30—40 percent of the students.

The first activity in the lesson plan was introductory science (Sachkunde) and a review of bicycle safety rules. The homework assignment, prepared on a handwritten mimeographed handout, was to identify each traffic signal by matching a number, indicating directions, with each type of light (in Germany: red, yellow, red to yellow, green) and answering several questions. The children were preparing for an examination required of all fourth-graders to be administered by two local police officers.

After a brief recess, the next subject was math, which began with an oral exercise involving numerical sequences such as _______, 15,000, 15,001; 99,999, _____, 100,001, and so forth. The teacher then instructed the children to work on exercises taken from the textbook, which involved adding or subtracting a constant from various five-digit numbers.

(+60)	(-80)	(+7)
30, 690	40, 920	89, 910
40, 900	50, 000	54, 949
45, 970	60, 200	70, 095
89, 590	79, 010	80, 999
63, 450	92, 640	21, 396

The problems were then discussed as a class. Whenever a student had the wrong answer, the other students indicated their disagreement by knocking on their desks. The teacher asked those students who had the highest percentage of correct answers to explain the process they used to arrive at the correct answer. This was the first time that the class had done subtraction with large numbers. Since the teacher noticed numerous mistakes involving subtraction, she instructed the class to work on additional problems (e.g., 60,000—9, 40,000—9, 10,000—9, and 80,000—9).

After yet another 15-minute recess, the children opened their German textbook. The teacher asked for volunteers to recite by memory one of two poems, which they had selected about fog. The children applauded after each reading. The class then moved to the front of the room to be closer to the chalkboard, where the teacher revealed a story she had written on the board entitled "Two Friends." Together, they examined the text in a step-by-step manner by reading it aloud and explaining the words using a pointer. The teacher posed scan-type questions (when, where, who, and what) and asked students to point out nouns, underline references to time, and make a list of words from the same word family. The homework assignment was to finish writing out the dictation.

In this class of mostly foreign and immigrant students, the teacher had forged a cohesive group of learners who were, with few exceptions, focused, well disciplined, and motivated. One had the impression that learning was not limited to inputs and outcomes; rather, it was an adventure and an ongoing process in which the teacher served as the facilitator.

The Transition to Lower Secondary Education

You must imagine it this way: the school is like a vase. A liter of water fits into the vase; then, if there is too much water, it overflows. There are three vases: Gymnasium, Realschule, and Hauptschule. And the water fills up the Gymnasium first, then the Realschule, then the Hauptschule. (Realschule teacher, South City)

The KMK describes the mission of each school form as follows: The Hauptschule provides a basic general education that prepares students in accordance with their ability and interests in vocational education. The Realschule offers an expanded general education, which allows students to continue their studies at the upper secondary level. The Gymnasium provides an in depth general education leading to postsecondary education.

The KMK also specifies that the structure of the lower secondary schools, which comprise grades 5 — 10, is based on general education, the fostering of individual talents, and the promotion of the intellectual, spiritual, and physical development of all students. Efforts are made to encourage traits such as independence, decisionmaking ability, and personal, social and political responsibility. Other goals include ensuring that instruction is appropriate to the level of understanding of each student in form, content, and degree of difficulty and providing a gradually increasing emphasis on specialization linked to the abilities and interests of the students. Finally, the schools also seek to ensure sufficient permeability to allow students to change school forms after the orientation phase.

Parental involvement in their children's education is probably at its zenith during the transition from the fourth to the fifth grade, because in Germany this transition represents one of the most pivotal steps in a child's life in regard to education. For most children, the choice of school in which they will enroll following the fourth grade is the most reliable predictor of their academic and professional future. How is this decision made and by whom? What are the criteria for attending a Hauptschule, a Realschule, or a Gymnasium?

In most states, the type of lower secondary school which children attend is determined by a student's academic achievement in the Grundschule, their teacher's view of their academic potential, and by parental support.

In Central State and South State, decisions about promotion are based on the teacher's recommendation and a specified grade point average. The student's teacher provides a written recommendation based on academic achievement, and the final decision is made by the student's parents. In practice, how this decision is made differs somewhat from state to state.

In South State fourth-graders with a grade point average of 2.3 or better in German, English, and math have the right to enroll in the Gymnasium in the fifth grade or the Realschule in the seventh grade. If their previous academic performance does not meet this criteria, they can take an admissions exam, which is developed and administered by each receiving school. Children with passing scores have the right to attend this school. Sixty percent of all children in South State attend the Realschule and the Gymnasium, approximately half of these to each of the two school types. Two-thirds enter the Realschule on the basis of grades and one-third from the results of an admissions test. Under the current system in South State, all children who do not enroll in the Gymnasium in grades five and six enroll in the Hauptschule. However, there are plans to modify the system to permit qualified students to enroll directly in the Realschule in the fifth grade.

In southwestern Germany there is yet a slightly different procedure for determining which lower secondary school form a child should attend. In this state, fourth-grade students take centrally created exams in German and math. The exam results and school grades form the basis for the decision about promotion. In 1992 — 93, 90 percent of all parents in southwestern Germany accepted the official placement recommendation. Parents who disagree must consult with the school, and their children must take a battery of comprehensive exams. If there is still disagreement, the students are required to take an entrance exam to gain admission into the school of choice.

In Central State, there are no set criteria for admission to a Realschule; the judgment of whether a child is suited for the Gymnasium is based on several factors, including a student's grade average (generally 1s and 2s), the likelihood of parental support, and good study and work habits and behavior. Unlike other states, which may require a student to have a grade point average of 2.5 or better to enter the Gymnasium, the prescribed grade average in Central State has been established by general consensus and is not a Ministry directive. In cases where there is disagreement between the teacher and parents, the wishes of the parents take precedence. During a conversation with one mother, her fourth-grade son, who overheard her say it was the parent's decision, informed her in no uncertain terms that his teachers had explained to his class that the final decision was theirs.

In Central State, the school which parents choose is legally obligated to admit their child, unless the principal can prove that there is insufficient space. School administrators, however, have devised ways to subvert the primacy of parental rights. Years ago, borderline children could attend a Gymnasium for one week, be evaluated in all subjects, and be either recommended for admission or rejected. Currently, a Gymnasium principal might receive a list of 20 names from a feeder elementary school. After the first 12 names is a blank line. It is understood that the remaining eight names are "questionable" students. Conversely, in order to maintain enrollments, which determine the number of teachers and other resources, principals may resort to admitting students who are likely to fail.

The transition to the Gymnasium can be difficult for children who have not learned how to work independently and in an organized and efficient manner. Based on their experience, both Gymnasium and Grundschule teachers agreed that a grade average of less than a 2 will most likely result in failure and eventual transfer to a less demanding and prestigious school form. For example, a Gesamtschule student explained how his fourth-grade teacher told him that his best option would be the Gesamtschule, because he might be held back at one of the more "demanding" school forms.

Since some parents either do not want their children to be left behind or view the Gymnasium as the only route to success and security, they insist that their child attend the Gymnasium, regardless of his or her past academic performance or potential. Other parents make the decision on a case-by-case basis, weighing each child?s chances for academic success and personal fulfillment. As one Maple Village mother whose older son was attending a Gymnasium informed us,

We would not send him (the younger son) to a Gymnasium if he were only average; that spoils the fun for the children. That's what these different options are for: the Realschule or, if we're uncertain, a Gesamtschule. Then we can reconsider at the end of the sixth grade whether or not to transfer him to a more demanding school.

There was a perception among many teachers and students we spoke with that a growing number of Gymnasium students belong in school types (i.e., Realschule or Gesamtschule) more in line with their academic ability and skills. Indeed, in recent years, nearly 30 percent of all students attending the Realschule or Gymnasium in Central State did so against their teacher?s advice. One-third of these children switched schools after one semester (Baumert 1994).

According to one Realschule teacher from South City,

The question of where the parents send their children has a lot to do with the social value placed on the various school forms. Parents naturally try to have their children attend the highest status school type and pursue the highest possible career opportunities. Consequently, the universities are overcrowded. The craftsman says, for example, 'my son should have it better,' so he goes to the Gymnasium. The more people who push their way into the Gymnasium, the lower the performance potential of the students will be. The Gymnasium must make an effort to maintain its standards and the value of its credential. With such a rush of children to the Gymnasium, it is difficult to turn so many kids away. As a consequence, the standards of the Gymnasium must decline. You know the saying, among the blind the one-eyed is king. That is, the Gymnasium produces many Abitur graduates who are not particularly well qualified.

Another teacher also suggested that many students are pushed into a Gymnasium despite the fact that they might be more successful in another school form. He estimated that one-third of all Gymnasium students are having academic problems and belong in a Realschule and that many fifth-grade Gymnasium students need tutoring in two to three subjects.

Many parents and teachers said that the level of school-related stress a student experiences depends on how well suited they are to the demands of the type of school in which they are placed. One teacher described a boy who would regularly bring in cookies and candy to "awaken the love" of the teacher and earn the recognition of his classmates. This led the teacher to wonder about the legal right of the parents to make the school placement decision, and whether there should instead be an entrance exam for fourth-grade students.

Förderstufe. Most states offer an orientation level for "late bloomers" who require additional time for adjustment and growth. This orientation level, know as the Förderstufe, is generally incorporated into either the Gesamtschule, the Realschule, or a combined Haupt/Realchule, and is limited to grades five and six. In 1992–93, 21 percent of all fifth-graders in Germany attended the nontracked Förderstufe.

The purpose of the Förderstufe is to allow for additional assessment by delaying the final decision about placement until the end of the sixth grade. The primary objective in grades five and six is to ease the transition from primary to secondary school, which is achieved by promoting each student?s readiness and ability to learn, attempting to provide an orientation to the student?s own interests, attitudes and ability, and compensating for differences in social background (Mitter 1987). The consensus among most teachers and parents at all levels is that children who have excelled in elementary school should bypass the orientation level in grades five and six and proceed directly to the Gymnasium, where they will benefit from a higher quality education.

In Central State, the Förderstufe has been an ideological battleground for the two major political parties. During a previous liberal SPD administration, the Förderstufe was mandatory for most students. After the conservative CDU came to power, it became optional. The end result was that the best students transferred to a Gymnasium and the remaining students were either those who were not qualified or prepared to enter the Gymnasium immediately after the fourth grade, or those students whose parents possibly wanted their children to attend the orientation level for political reasons.

The Ministry of Education in Central State has actively promoted the orientation level by providing such items as instructional materials and suggestions in the form of curriculum guidelines. The curriculum emphasizes project work, meaning that students are supposed to learn in an interdisciplinary manner. For example, a topic such as "the family" is dealt with in the context of a number of subjects and taught in 6-week modules. This approach requires teachers to spend an inordinate amount of time in preparation and meetings, and the level of coordination of these meetings differs from school to school, depending upon the extent of teacher involvement.

In the first semester of the fifth grade in the Förderstufe, all students take the same courses. Differentiation begins in the second semester with A, B, and C courses, which have differing levels of difficulty. This system, which also reflects the tripartite structure of Germany?s education system, is a means of "selecting out" students. In one instance, a teacher decided that 10 children were suited for A courses and the remaining students for B and C courses. However, the parents of five of the students assigned to a lower level course insisted that their children enroll in the A course. Even though all of these students performed poorly on the first two exams, it was impossible to transfer them to a more appropriate level. Although the teacher provided supplemental instruction for these students, they were forced to switch to a course at a lower level after one semester.

The CDU-governed South State does not have the Förderstufe for grades five and six.

School Standards

The percentage of students from a given Grundschule who enter a Gymnasium tends to be viewed by many fourth-grade teachers as a sign of success, an indicator of productivity, and a benchmark for comparison. While a low-achieving elementary school may send 10 percent of its fourth-grade class to a Gymnasium, the percentage for a high-achieving school may exceed 50 percent.

There is a strong connection between the quality of education in the primary grades and a student?s success at the lower secondary level, particularly at the Gymnasium.

The parents we interviewed spoke freely about the strengths and weaknesses of their children?s schools, drawing on comparisons based not on objective evidence but on conversations with other parents and the performance of Grundschule "graduates" at Gymnasien. At Maple Village, parents who said they expect their children to attend the Gymnasium were the rule, while parents of Oakwood students with the same expectation were the exception.

One mother's perception that other Grundschulen have higher standards and demand more from their students in math and German was based on her son?s experiences.

Writing essays, learning vocabulary. All of this is treated in a somewhat cavalier manner. Maybe not by all teachers, but there are those teachers who believe that the first 2 years of school should be stress free. It?s an unbelievable shock for them when they enter the fifth grade.

Her son is now having problems in German at his Gymnasium, which she attributes to shortcomings in his Grundschule education. She admitted that he developed other abilities and skills such as self-confidence, musical talent, and public speaking.

A mother of a student at Oakwood observed that students at Oakwood have more difficulty adjusting to the Gymnasium than their counterparts from other elementary schools. Oakwood does not "cover the same ground at the same pace" as schools with a smaller percentage of foreign students. However she expressed satisfaction with the quality of education her daughter was receiving, considering the location of the school and the high percentage of foreign students. Her daughter's teacher regularly assigned extra work and devoted time to the four or five outstanding students in the class. Nevertheless, she was convinced that the situation was better at schools in "middle-class" neighborhoods, areas with parents who are "architects and engineers" who were more concerned about academic quality or who could afford to hire a tutor for their children. The father said that he wished that the best and brightest students had the opportunity to attend another school "where there is order" and where they would not be teased by their classmates.

While relatively few students from Oakwood continue their schooling at a Gymnasium, those who do perform at the level of their classmates. An Oakwood teacher recounted the story of a mother from a neighboring middle-class community who expressed concern about the potentially negative impact of the "Oakwood students" on their classmates at the local Gymnasium. During the first few weeks of the school year, the teacher assured her that they were performing on par with their classmates who had attended other Grundschulen.

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[Chapter 2 (Part 1 of 5)]

[Chapter 2 (Part 3 of 5)]

2nd grade:	4 tests in German, each no more than 15 minutes long 4 tests in Math, each no more than 15 minutes;
3rd grade:	6 exams in German, 3 no more than 30 minutes and 3 no more than 15 minutes 6 exams in Math, 3 no more than 30 minutes and 3 no more than 15 minutes;
4th grade:	6 exams each in German and math for a total of 12, 4 in each subject no more than 30 minutes long and 2 for an entire class period (45 minutes).

1.	3,485 +4,795	1,826 +4,327	8,411 -1,727		9,119 -6,703

2.	2,387 +4,254 +2,963	9,010 - 986 -4,714	10,000 -4,705 -1,934
3.	Subtract 3385 from 6134.
4.	8 * 660= 5 * 435=
5.	1,350 divided by 3= 4,600 divided by 5=
6.	Round off the following numbers to			10s 4,927	100s 6,004	1,000s 9,997
7.	Yesterday, 4,025 cars were counted on a particular road. Today, 1,989 fewer cars were counted. How many cars were counted today?
8.	Draw a triangle with the following dimensions: lines AB and AC have a length of 6 cm and line BC has a length of 8 cm.
9.	There were 2,486 people at the circus of whom 985 were adults. How many children were at the show? a. Calculate with rounded numbers. b. Calculate the exact answer.
10.	What part of 2,500 is 5? What is one-fifth of 30?

A r c h i v e d I n f o r m a t i o n

Chapter 2 - The Development
and Implementation of Education
Standards in Germany
(Part 2 of 5)

Elementary Schools

Curriculum Development and Implementation

Textbooks

Homework

Grading and Examinations

Use of Computers

Elementary School Teachers' Views of Student Preparation

Teacher and Parent Expectations

Parental Involvement In the Administration of Schools

Classroom Observation (Oakwood)

The Transition to Lower Secondary Education

School Standards

A r c h i v e d I n f o r m a t i o n

Chapter 2 - The Development and Implementation of Education Standards in Germany(Part 2 of 5)

Elementary Schools

Curriculum Development and Implementation

Textbooks

Homework

Grading and Examinations

Use of Computers

Elementary School Teachers' Views of Student Preparation

Teacher and Parent Expectations

Parental Involvement In the Administration of Schools

Classroom Observation (Oakwood)

The Transition to Lower Secondary Education

School Standards

Chapter 2 - The Development
and Implementation of Education
Standards in Germany
(Part 2 of 5)