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The researchers each spent 2 to 3 months collecting data at the primary research site. In addition, three of the researchers spent between 2 and 4 weeks conducting research at each of the two secondary sites in order to collect data with which to put the findings from the primary site in perspective. Since our field research was limited to schools in 3 states, we do not claim to represent the views of individuals from all of Germany?s 16 states.
The primary site, Central City, is located in one of the states that forms the geographic center of Germany. It is a modern city of over a half million people. The city and its suburbs compose one of the country?s leading trade and finance centers and contains an ethnically diverse population. In 1991, the average unemployment rate in this area was more than 1 percentage point below the national average. Both the city and the state in which it is located can be characterized as urban, nonindustrial, administrative, prosperous, ethnically and socially heterogeneous, and politically progressive. As a result of its politically progressive history, the primary site contains a broader range of schooling arrangements than those found in some of the other German states. The city itself supports over 80 elementary and basic secondary schools (Grund- and Hauptschulen), 15 secondary schools (Realschulen), over 20 academic secondary schools (Gymnasien), and over a half-dozen comprehensive schools (Gesamtschulen). In addition, a small number of schools lying in more rural areas outside of Central City were included in our school sample in this region.
The secondary site located in eastern Germany is an industrial city of about the same size as the primary site. East City offered an opportunity to contrast the steady economic, education, and cultural characteristics of central Germany with those of a rapidly changing city within the former East Germany. East City is also a regional center for higher education and culture. Although the economy has suffered during the transition from a socialist to a capitalist system, it remains one of the most promising centers of industry and trade in eastern Germany. Politically, the state favors the conservative Christian Democratic Union (CDU) but has a notable progressive element. The city and the state may be characterized as urban, heavy-industrial, prosperous by eastern German standards, heterogeneous, and politically conservative.
The other secondary site is a medium-sized city of slightly over 100,000 people located in one of Germany?s southern states. South City and the state of which it is a part are both rural and industrial, prosperous, and moderately heterogeneous. The city is smaller than the other two sites we visited and is a regional center for administration, education and culture within a state which is socially and politically more conservative than is the case in either of the other two research sites. The region is widely known for its rigorous standards and "stay-with-the-basics" approach to schooling, and the conservative political climate is reflected in the traditional structure of the education system and the relatively small number of students who attend Gymnasium. The city?s school system includes approximately 20 elementary and basic secondary schools (Hauptschulen), a half dozen Realschulen, and 8 Gymnasien.
In Central City we visited three Grundschulen, two combined Haupt/Realschulen, two standard Gymnasien, one Gesamtschule (comprehensive school), two Berufsschulen (part-time vocational schools), and one Berufliches gymnasium (vocational high school). These schools were spread around a very large area and were in very different neighborhoods, some in highly urban areas, others in outlying suburbs or former villages turned suburbs, and still others in the rural area just outside the main city. The schools at the primary site were selected to represent the diversity in the area, in terms of socioeconomic factors, ethnicity, and academic rigor. A few included 50?60 percent foreign and immigrant students, while in other schools foreign students comprised less than 25 percent of the student enrollment.
The first Grundschule in Central City was located in a prosperous suburb, which has recently seen an influx of urban professionals. The suburb, though now connected to the city by train, was once a rural village. It is surrounded by lush vegetation and can be characterized as conservative and middle class. The school is relatively small with around 200 students. The administrative building and newer modern classroom buildings surrounded a courtyard, which hummed with the activity of children before school and during recess. This Grundschule, referred to as Maple Village Elementary by Mark Ashwill in his chapter on standards, has always been well known for its high standards, and still routinely sent over half its fourth-graders to a Gymnasium.
The second Grundschule was located in an economically depressed part of Central City. Although the Grundschule was of average size, it shared a building with a Hauptschule and Realschule, making the overall student population of the combined schools quite large. The school itself was in fairly good condition, but the neighborhood was a mixture of old and new apartment buildings, small businesses, ethnic restaurants, markets, and bars. Despite the problems associated with being in a low-income neighborhood, the school was known for its engaged and caring teaching staff and its competent administrative leadership. Foreign students at this school made up more than 60 percent of all enrolled students. This Grundschule, referred to as Oakwood Elementary by Mark Ashwill in his chapter on standards, recommends approximately 20 percent of its students to Gymnasium; the remaining 80 percent go to either a Hauptschule, Realschule, or Gesamtschule following their 4th year at Grundschule.
The third Grundschule is located in the southern part of the study site on the outskirts of a small town approximately a half hour drive from Central City. The school was smaller than the other two elementary schools, enrolling only 130 students. It was very colorful both inside and out, and it was viewed as innovative in its teaching practices and scheduling. Many of the children from this Grundschule went on to study at a reputable nearby Gesamtschule.
The Gesamtschule that we visited was in a town of approximately 15,000 people, located about an hour?s drive from Central City. Most of the children in the area attend this Gesamtschule, which also offers upper level Gymnasium courses (Oberstufe grades 11?13) leading to the Abitur. It was one of the first four Gesamtschulen in the entire state. It currently has an enrollment of nearly 1,000 students. The building itself is relatively new and well equipped. Unlike many schools we visited, the halls displayed a wide range of student activities, including art projects. The school brochure also listed a large number of elective courses available to students during their sixth period. These included English clubs, soccer, computer, other language clubs, a math club, and a music club.
The two-combined Haupt/Realschulen were located on opposite sides of the city. One was in a former village turned suburb on the outskirts of Central City and the other was in a low-income urban area. The suburban village Haupt/Realschule was housed in an older building, but the school and the entire neighborhood were well kept. The village was originally home to many individuals who worked for a large industrial company nearby and still retains its middle-class atmosphere. The school atmosphere was friendly and relaxed, yet productive. The urban combined Haupt/Realschule was a large school, which also included a Grundschule. Nearly 800 students attend this combined school. The school bulletin states that in 1993?94, about 150 of these students were enrolled in the Hauptschule track and 26 percent of all students came from families on social welfare. The building itself is made of modern concrete and is in a lower socioeconomic section of the city, where many immigrant families and lower income working-class German families live. Approximately 70 percent of the student population is comprised of non-German students.
We visited two Gymnasien in Central City?one in the city and the other in a picturesque rural town to the south of the main city. Both schools had long histories and solid reputations among the academic secondary schools in their state. Both also had strong math and science programs. The Gymnasium located in Central City drew students from the entire metropolitan area, with many traveling to school by train each day. The second Gymnasium, located in a smaller community about an hour?s drive from the city, drew its students from the surrounding rural communities. Both schools were relatively large, with even the rural school enrolling approximately 900 students in grades 5?13.
We also visited a berufliches (vocational) Gymnasium which shared a building with a Berufsschule (vocational school). The Berufliches gymnasium was known to be less rigorous than the standard Gymnasium. This school was located in a middle-class neighborhood in a small city about 30 miles outside of Central City. The Berufliches gymnasium and Berufsschule combined enrolled nearly 1,800 students. The Berufsschule offered programs combining education with apprenticeship for students holding completion certificates from either a Hauptschule or Realschule. Because it enrolled students from a large area and because the Berufsschule students also worked at internships, many of the students drove to school. The school, built in the 1980?s, was large and well equipped with the latest computers and computer software for its students. A total of 110 teachers taught courses at this school, some in both programs.
We visited a smaller number of schools at the two secondary sites. Their inclusion in the study allowed us to gather information regarding some of the variation between the education systems and school types in the three states. In East City we visited a Grundschule, a Mittelschule, a Gymnasium, and a Berufsschule. In South City we visited a Realschule and a Gymnasium.
The Grundschule in East City was located in a densely populated area of the city and was surrounded by concrete apartment buildings. Current enrollment was approximately 340 students, and its 19-member teaching faculty was younger than average. The building itself, while also concrete and rather drab, contained large well-lit classrooms and had a friendly, open atmosphere.
The Mittelschule in East City was located in a residential suburb of the main city approximately 40 minutes from the center of town. The school contained grades 5?10 and enrolled approximately 300 students. There were 24 teachers on the staff. The school, while old, was in good condition and had up-to-date computer facilities.
The Gymnasium in East City was very large with over 1,200 students and a teaching staff of nearly 75. It was located in a area of the city containing approximately 100,000 people; most of whom lived in concrete apartment buildings. As was the case in Central City, the Gymnasium drew students from other regions of the city as well as those who lived nearby.
The Berufsschule in East City specialized in vocations related to metalwork. Although the school enrolled over 1,000 students in programs, which lasted for 2?3 years, the staff included only 29 teachers. Most of the teachers had heavier-than-normal teaching loads.
In South City, the Realschule was housed in a very traditional, almost palatial-looking building in the old part of the city. The inside of the building, however, was rather bare and functional in appearance, with very little student artwork decorating the halls or rooms. As is typical of most schools in Germany, the school was built around a central courtyard and students used this courtyard to gather with friends before school and during breaks. Approximately 450 students were enrolled at this Realschule and there was a teaching staff of 34.
The Gymnasium in South City was slightly larger than the Realschule we visited there. There were slightly more than 500 students and 51 teachers. The building itself was relatively new, although the school has a long history. It is located in a residential area outside of the old city.
To assess the achievement levels in math and science of the students in the lower secondary schools who participated in this case study, our German colleagues contacted each of these schools and asked them to allow testing of one eighth-grade classroom. All of the case study schools participated except for the Realschule located in Southern State. In the schools, which offered both Hauptschule and Realschule tracks, the test was administered to an eighth-grade classroom from each track.
The test consisted of a subset of math and science problems that comprised one of the test booklets administered to students who participated in the Third International Math and Science Study (TIMSS). Therefore, the test data from this subset allowed a comparison of scores achieved on this set of questions at case study schools with those achieved by eighth-grade classes in other German schools.
Test results show that the lower secondary schools all fall well within the average range when their test results are compared to others of the same school form. So, for example, the results from all three Hauptschule track classes at the case study schools show that the class scored at or near the mean score for all Hauptschule classes that were tested as a part of the TIMSS study. This was also true of the eighth-grade Realschule track classes that were tested.
These test results also confirmed the rather substantial differences between academic achievement levels at the various school forms. The mean math score for Hauptschule students was 18 points lower than that of Realschule students, and the mean science score for Hauptschule students was 16 points lower than that of Realschule students. One Gymnasium in Central City also participated in the subset test at the eighth-grade level. Although this Gymnasium was considered by state education officials to be an average Central City Gymnasium, its students outscored the local case study Realschule students by an average of nearly 25 points in math and seventeen points in science.
The other Gymnasium in Central State, which participated in the case study, did not participate in the TIMSS subset test. However, we were able to obtain from education specialists in Germany an indication of its academic achievement level. The Gymnasium located within Central City was rated as being within the top third of Gymnasien in Central State, and the Gymnasium located in a smaller community just outside Central City was rated as average. The Gymnasium in East State did participate in the TIMSS subset test. To assess its achievement level, its mean scores were compared to those of all the Gymnasien, which took the TIMSS test in Germany. Its test results in both the 8th and 12th grades demonstrate their achievement level as average.
Grundschulen which participated in the case study were administered the TIMSS subset test at the fourth grade. The results cannot be compared to a national sample for fourth-graders, since the TIMSS was not administered at the fourth-grade level in Germany. However, we can compare the case study schools to each other. The four case study Grundschulen from Central State all scored within 8 points of each other, well within the standard deviation of each, while the Grundschule in Leipzig scored approximately 20 points above those in Central State. From these scores, and our observations and interview information, we can conclude that the case study Grundschulen in Central State were average schools while the Grundschulen in Leipzig was above average in achievement level in math and science.
Interviews and observations conducted at the 16 schools in Germany provide the core of the data used in this volume. The chapters are arranged by topic, with each author focusing on the data to construct a broad yet detailed picture of their research findings. Furthermore, each author attempted to situate the findings for their particular research topic within the larger cultural context.
We seek in the following chapters to describe in detail the results of our field research according to the four research topics chosen for this study. In order to clearly represent the findings from the field research, the topical chapters of this volume offer both summary descriptions of data as well as direct quotations from parents, teachers, and students from each type of school. Therefore, the reader will encounter information pertaining to the major school forms, the Grundschule, Hauptschule, Realschule, Gesamtschule, Gymnasium, Berufsschule, and vocational Gymnasium as it relates to each of the major issues. While this may give the appearance of redundancy at times, this approach will familiarize readers with the differences and similarities shared by these school forms.
Chapter 2 reports the findings related to the topic of education standards. Field research on education standards focused primarily on the following topics: the development and application of standards, particularly in math and science, in each of the school forms; curriculum development and implementation of curricula as a reflection of these standards; examinations as a means of evaluating the degree to which students meet these standards; and the transition from one school form to another and to postsecondary education. Also investigated were the role of textbooks, homework, grading, instructional hours, examinations, and training. The comparability of schooling among states was also examined. Abitur examinations in mathematics and the sciences (appendix A) were translated to provide supplemental data for the analysis of standards.
Chapter 3 deals with the topic of individual differences in ability, especially the cultural and personal perceptions of individual differences in academic performance. Among areas considered are, how the education system and individuals within the system deal with individual differences, attitudes toward the way in which the education system accommodated individual differences, and people's attitudes toward the education of disabled or gifted students.
The role of school in adolescents' lives is examined in chapter 4. The primary issues were: time use at school and in other activities, attitude towards school and education, the transition from secondary school to employment or higher education, and the influence of external factors such as family, peers, and society on adolescent development and academic achievement.
Chapter 5 reports on the findings related to the topic of teachers' working conditions and training. Interviews were organized around four major topics: teachers' personal characteristics, the training and professional development of teachers, the profession of teaching, and teachers' working conditions.
[Chapter 2 The Development and Implementation of Education Standards in Germany (Part 1 of 5)]