Data collected by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) and the Bureau of the Census show important educational gains over the past two decades for both Latinos and non-Hispanic whites. Nevertheless, data also show Hispanic students trailing behind their non-Hispanic white peers in a number of important areas — disparities that begin even before kindergarten and continue throughout adulthood.
Early Childhood Education. Research has shown that a quality preschool experience is an important indicator of student success. Pre-primary schooling prepares children for a solid elementary education by teaching skills for learning and socialization.
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Years of experience have led us to believe that the best intervention must be initiated as early as possible and it must comprise a firm commitment and involvement of the parents.
Hilda Maldonado |
Proactive programs such as Parent-Child Development Centers, Early Head Start, and Head Start have begun to address the importance of parental influence on early childhood development. The Perry Preschool Project, a Head Start-like model, for instance, has been found to reduce high school drop-out rates, grade retention, delinquency, and teen pregnancy. In addition, Head Start students are 8 to 11 percent more likely to be immunized.18
In general, Hispanic children are under-represented in quality preschool programs. From 1973 to 1993, Hispanic three-and four-year-old enrollment in preschool remained flat (about 15 percent), while white preschool enrollment steadily grew from 18 to 35 percent.19 In 1995, similar percentages of white and black children, ages three and four, were enrolled in nursery, pre-kindergarten, Head Start, and kindergarten programs, while Hispanic children were less likely to be enrolled.20 Often, low-income Hispanic families believe their home environments are better for their children than programs like Head Start, because many early childhood services are not prepared to deal with the linguistic and cultural diversity of their children.
At age four, Hispanic children tend to have less well-developed school-related skills than do white children. In 1993, for example, Hispanic four-year old children were less able than their white counterparts to identify basic colors (61 percent compared to 91 percent), recognize all letters of the alphabet (12 percent compared to 31 percent), count up to 50 or more (11 percent compared to 22 percent), and write their first name (59 percent compared to 74 percent).21 This inadequate introduction to schooling, as this report documents, may have long-term negative consequences for Hispanic students.
Conversely, quality preschool programs can prepare Hispanic children to be "ready to learn" in elementary school. Low income Hispanic American communities, especially, must be strengthened with adequate health care and family services, environmental precautions, crime reduction, improved housing, accessible transportation, increased employment opportunities, and safe and developmentally appropriate child care. Hispanic families must be strengthened with effective parenting, health, and adult education services, and must be linked to available resources and support services. These services must begin before and during pregnancy, and be culturally and linguistically relevant.
Elementary and Middle School. For most children, elementary school provides their first experiences with formal learning — experiences that endure their entire lives. For Hispanic children, that usually means that throughout elementary and middle school they continue to trail behind other groups. By age nine, Hispanic American students lag behind in reading, mathematics, and science proficiency. Although slight gains were noted on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in 1992, Hispanic children continue to score lower than white children in all three subject areas.
Latino students are more likely to be "held over" in the elementary grades or experience "delayed schooling." This is the highest predictor of school dropout rates. Though there continues to be no research base to support the practice of holding over students, schools have not developed the intervention strategies needed to get students "back on course."
The middle school experience also exerts a far-reaching influence on children's lives. In 1989, a Carnegie report, "Turning Points," reminded the nation that middle schools, junior high schools, and intermediate schools are potentially society's most powerful force "...to recapture millions of youth adrift, and help every young person thrive during adolescence, yet all too often these schools exacerbate the problems of young adolescents."22 At age 13, Hispanic students were, on average, about 2 years behind in math and reading, and about 4 years behind in science in 1992.23 In fact, 40 percent of 16- to 24-year-old Hispanic dropouts left school with less than a 9th grade education, compared with 13 percent of white dropouts and 11 percent of black dropouts.
High School. Once a student falls behind, the effects may last a lifetime. Rather than face continuous humiliation, many Latino students simply walk away from formal education. It is essential to understand that each step in the educational system is a building block. When steps are missed, the results often lead to poor performance, grade retention, and dropping out. Large gaps in educational attainment remain through the age of 17, with Latino students scoring lower than white students in math, science, reading, and writing proficiency.
In short, due to many deficiencies in the educational system, Latinos have a high dropout rate.iii In October of 1993, the dropout rate for Hispanic 16- to 24-year-olds was 28 percent. That is, 28 percent of all Latinos in this age group had not completed and were not enrolled in high school, which was double the rate for blacks (14 percent) and more than three times the rate for whites (8 percent) in the same group.24
Hispanic Americans not only have a higher dropout rate, they tend to drop out of school earlier. In 1993, an alarming 40 percent of Hispanic dropouts had not completed the 8th grade.25 Another 18 percent of Latino dropouts completed 9th grade, but left before completing 10th grade, and over one-half (58 percent) of Hispanic dropouts have less than a 10th grade education. Only 29 percent of white dropouts and 25 percent of black dropouts leave as early as do Hispanics.26
Hispanic American students' high dropout rates are linked to various inefficiencies and inadequacies throughout the educational system. Intervention measures, therefore, must be aimed as well as at the elementary level and secondary level since a very large percent drop out early. Simply put, there is a need for more programs designed to bring the performance of Latino students up to par with other groups.
Grade retention is one of the major factors contributing to school dropout rates. Indeed, when looking at the overall picture, a correlation between dropout and retention rates becomes apparent. Data from the National Center for Education Statistics demonstrate that most students who decide to drop out have repeated one or more grades. In 1993 alone, 41 percent had repeated more than one grade, 17 percent had repeated one grade, and 9 percent had not repeated a grade.27
Hispanic students are more often than not "tracked" into general courses that satisfy only the basic high school requirements, and do not provide access to four-year colleges or to rigorous technical schools. In addition, such courses do not qualify Hispanics for good, entry level jobs in high-technology industries. However, while the dropout rates remain high, some progress can be noted. The percentage of Latino and white high school graduates advanced science and mathematics courses, for instance, increased dramatically between 1982 and 1992. As a result, a few more Hispanic students are now following a more rigorous curriculum, but they are far from the majority.
Even as the numbers of Latino high school graduates increase, they are still less likely than white graduates to have completed the "New Standards" curriculum, which includes four years of English and three years of science, social studies, and mathemat ics (44 percent compared to 54 percent in 1994).28 In 1992, Hispanic graduates were less likely than white graduates to have taken geometry, Algebra II, trigonometry, chemistry, physics, or a combination of biology, chemistry, and physics; they were more likely to have taken remedial mathematics.29
Pre-College Preparation. These programs make college a more realistic option for many students. However, few Hispanic Americans enroll in such programs. In 1990, only 23 percent of Latino 10th graders, compared to 34 percent of whites, enrolled in college preparatory or academic programs;30 and the recently released evaluation of Upward Bound reported that the program has considerably lower Hispanic participation than other pre-college programs.31
Many pre-college programs focus on motivating and preparing high-school-aged minority students to attend two- and four-year institutions. Such programs prepare students for professional careers by providing them with the proper academic advising for high school course selection, and by exposing them to career choices. These programs are not widespread among Latino students. Expanding these programs, though, would provide more Latino youth with the experience of academic success, which of course nurtures their aspirations to pursue a postsecondary education.
Higher Education. Modern economic realities place a great deal of pressure upon American students who are being urged to pursue careers in their field of choice. A high school diploma has not guaranteed employment for some time. Two-year, four-year, and graduate degrees, on the other hand, improve an individual's chances for success, and help to develop a range of "real-life" opportunities. For Hispanics, however, the demand for college degrees remains greater than the opportunities provided them to obtain such degrees.
While the increase in Hispanics pursuing a postsecondary education is significant, it is insufficient to assure parity in the workforce. From 1973 to 1994, the overall number of high school graduates enrolled in a four-year institution doubled, from 16 to 31 percent. The percentage of both whites and blacks enrolled at those institutions also more than doubled within the same time period. Blacks increased from 13 to 25 percent and whites increased from 16 to 33 percent. College-bound Hispanics in four-year institutions, however, only increased from 13 to 20 percent.32 Plainly, postsecondary Hispanic student enrollment and graduation rates are not keeping pace with the Hispanic American presence in the general population nor with the available pool of Latino high school graduates.
Moreover, 1992-1993 data on degrees conferred for higher education demonstrate that, overall, Hispanic Americans received a very small percentage of degrees. Hispanics earned 6 percent of all associate degrees, for example, and 4 percent of all bachelors degrees, 3 percent of all masters degrees, and 2 percent of all doctorates awarded for the 1992-1993 school year.34 These proportions have remained relatively flat since the 1980s.
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Numbers Reveal Disparity in PhDs
In 1994, of the 43,261 PhDs awarded nationwise, |
Actual numbers of PhD's awarded, for example demonstrate the magnitude of the degree disparities. In 1994, of the 43,261 PhD's awarded across all fields in U.S. colleges and universities, only 946 were awarded to Hispanics (2.18 percent), while 11,530 (26.65 percent) were awarded to foreign national or alien students, 1,344 (3.1 percent) to black, non-Hispanic students, 132 (0.31 percent) to American Indians or Alaskan Natives, 1,943 (4.49 percent) to Asian Americans, and 26,137 (60.42 percent) to white, non-Hispanic students. There are entire fields and disciplines at the doctoral level in which Hispanics and other minorities have never received a doctoral degree.
Additionally, in 1994, about half of all Hispanic Americans enrolled in postsecondary education were enrolled in two-year community colleges.35 For many interested students, community colleges provide two years of an excellent education, and can "open doors" to four-year institutions as well as offering certificates and special training that translate into marketable skills. According to the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC), 47 percent of all minority students in higher education are students at community colleges; and Hispanics make up more than a third (36 percent) of total community college enrollments.36
Many Hispanic community college students share a desire to transfer to a four-year school. However, most of those students are unable to transfer often due to lack of information and lack of counseling. Students are not aware of the courses needed to transfer, and too often are placed in remedial courses that do not transfer. Students, too, simply lack knowledge of the Federal aid that might help them to transfer to bachelor-granting institutions. Additionally, transfer articulation agreements between two- and four-year colleges are inconsistent and generally weak.
Adult Education. Among adults, Latinos have lower literacy levels than do whites, both in general and even when they hold similar levels of educational attainment.37 Adult education can address this condition by offering vocational skills, computer skills, ESL, basic education in the native language, and courses in a wide range of topics for personal or professional growth. Adult education programs enable adults to participate more fully in the workplace, to attain better paying and more satisfying jobs, and to become better advocates for their children.
Hispanic Americans are more likely to participate in English-as-a-Second-Language courses, literacy education, and citizenship classes — courses usually are offered by community-based organizations, schools, or community colleges. Waiting lists for adult education ESL classes in cities like Los Angeles, for instance, have been in the 10s of thousands, with classes taught late at night being as over-subscribed as are day classes, proving that Hispanics, like all serious students, will more than take advantage of a good education.
Although Hispanic community-based organizations have worked collaboratively with schools and have made significant contributions, many adults are finding it increasingly difficult to locate and to gain access to affordable programs, in which to learn English, improve literacy skills, and earn GEDs.
Similarly, even though lifelong learning is necessary for most skilled workers, not enough emphasis has been placed upon the public and private training of adults, or upon job retraining. Training and development funds, in fact, are the first to be cut when budgets are constrained. That must end, and businesses, too, need to provide programs of continuing education, training, and retraining to keep workers abreast of developing technology.
Increasingly, technology drives the workplace and requires a constant upgrading of education and skills, which puts added pressure upon the need for continuing education and lifelong learning programs. In brief, the education system must allow people to "reenter" and to pursue vocational and technical training. Equity in the workplace is contingent upon adult education for Hispanic Americans. Yet, those with the greatest need for continuing education and training are the unemployed, the under-employed, and those with a limited educational background, for whom education and training remain quite illusive.
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State of Education (cont'd)...
