A r c h i v e d I n f o r m a t i o n

From Students of Teaching to Teachers of Students: Teacher Induction Around the Pacific Rim - January 1997

Chapter 5 (continued)

Teacher Induction in an Era of Educational Reform: The Case of New Zealand

Jay Moskowitz and Shelley Kennedy

School Professional Development

Schools focus considerable resources and attention on professional development. In schools visited, 4 to 7 percent of a school's discretionary budget (excluding professional salaries) was spent on school-wide and individual in-service activities. Several of the BoTs have adopted policies requiring that a specified portion (around 5 percent) of the budget be spent on professional development activities. In schools visited, new teachers, along with other staff, participate fully in the school's professional development.

In many schools, teachers participate in selecting an area for school-wide professional development. It could be training in the English national curriculum statement one year, or learning about child-behavior strategies in another year. In another school, it might be ESL strategies or the culture of the school's student population. Over the course of a year, about five days are devoted to these school-wide professional development activities, which most often occur on teacher-only days and after school. In one school visited, teachers voluntarily attend a four-day retreat scheduled for during their school vacation.

EXHIBIT 4
EXAMPLE OF TEACHER SUPPORT SERVICES COURSE OFFERINGS

SESSION 1: Introductions, use of .2 time, with tutor teacher group
SESSION 2: Behavior management (class)
SESSION 3: Planning, goal setting, recordkeeping
SESSION 4: Behavior management (individual children)
SESSION 5: English curriculum
SESSION 6: Mathematics curriculum
SESSION 7: Assessment
SESSION 8: Curriculum options
SESSION 9: Curriculum options

New teachers may also have an opportunity to attend one professional development course, based on the individual professional development plan that they developed with the principal or deputy principal.

To assist schools to identify materials, courses, demonstration projects, and other educational information that will help them provide professional development, the New Zealand Council for Educational Research--in collaboration with the National Library of New Zealand, Ministry of Education, Wellington College of Education, and the NZQA--is investigating the development and implementation of the Education Information New Zealand (EDINZ). EDINZ is a proposed index-database to bring together in one easily accessible form the fragmented information about education in New Zealand.

Participation

Some confusion appears to exist about participation in teacher registration and AGP. Between 1989 and 1991, new teachers were required to be provisionally registered in order to teach, the school was required to provide the new teacher with an AGP, and the school, after two years, was expected to recommend a new teacher to become fully registered. BoTs implemented the requirement that all their teachers be registered. In 1991, the legislature amended the law and made registration voluntary¹, although no BoT has reversed its policy and teachers still assume that registration is not only desirable but mandatory. However, in the next few years when teacher shortages are anticipated, BoTs can rescind their registration requirement in order to meet staffing needs.

As the TRB states, "although registration was made voluntary in 1991, there has been no lessening of the demand from teachers to become registered, nor the resolve of employers to employ only teachers who are registered ...." The Registration Board has been concerned that the high international regard for New Zealand teachers could be weakened by the 1991 decision to make registration voluntary. The Board also feels that voluntary registration does not offer children, parents, and trustees the security that a compulsory system provides. In 1995, the Education and Science Select Committee proposed, and the TRB supports, reverting to mandatory registration.

At the same time, the government is considering alternative forms of teacher training (in response to teacher shortages) and a freer market for the supply of teacher training. A system of voluntary registration shifts the burden for a quality teacher corps from the central government to local BoTs. Several educators suggest that inequities among schools may widen--as attractive schools (with more resources) are able to continue to hire and retain high-quality registered teachers and less attractive schools can hire only nonregistered, less qualified teachers. Attractive schools will increasingly be high-SES, predominantly Pakeha schools. Others disagree, arguing that sufficient safeguards exist, because the government controls the right to provide teacher training, funds the training, and funds professional development.

Program Effectiveness

During 1995, 91 percent of the teachers who applied to be registered were approved by the TRB. Ten teachers (out of 15 requests) were deregistered, and two requests for deregistration are pending. Today, over 41,000 New Zealand-registered teachers work full-time in primary and secondary schools. Since 1989, the government has not evaluated the registration process or school AGPs. However, over the past 10 years, several researchers have examined the teacher induction process in New Zealand.

David Battersby reported that, in 1986, about half of the new teachers received three to five hours per week of support during the first term. Release time declined by 40 percent in the third term. Twenty percent of new teachers received less than one hour a week. Release time was generally used for the purposes currently promoted by the TRB. Since Battersby recommended that clear guidelines for the.2 be developed and distributed, significant progress appears to have been made. Although no comparable study has been conducted, principals, senior management staff, and new teachers consistently report that most AGPs use the .2 funding for teacher induction activities. In particular, primary school teachers in suburban and wealthy city schools report receiving release time. They indicate that friends from college who are teaching in less favorable situations do not receive as much support as they do. Secondary school teachers also tend to have less chance of receiving the full allocation of release time.

Among Battersby's other recommendations that remain relevant was to provide funding for year-two release time and to provide training and compensation to tutor teachers. A few schools that receive direct resourcing (referred to as bulk funding², by many to school personnel) are experimenting with providing .1 release time for two years.

Battersby’s work was completed prior to Tomorrow's Schools. Since then, a major research activity was completed in 1993 by Margery Renwick and June Vize of the New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Renwick and Vize followed a cohort of students from their first year at a college of education through their first year of teaching. Viewing the first year in the classroom as a continuation of pre-service training and the first stage of professional development, Renwick and Vize's work describes first-year teachers as responsible for their own development and confident about their ability to teach. "They did not expect to be spoon-fed. If they wanted to get ahead, particularly in a tight job market, they needed to set their own goals and do something about what they knew to be weaknesses.... Those beginning teachers who placed limits on their responsibility for their own teacher development spoke of a joint responsibility between themselves and the school. If schools want better teachers, they have to accept some responsibility for teacher development."

Renwick and Vize identified several overarching themes that emerged in response to questioning about how the new teachers felt they had developed over their first year:

The difficulty of singling out any specific area of development, because they had increased their skills across the complete range of classroom competencies, and a sense of being overwhelmed by how much they have learnt--they had gone "from strength to strength," developed in "leaps and bounds."
Increased experience as the year progressed had led to increased confidence in most aspects of classroom practice. This in turn led to increased enthusiasm for teaching--they "loved going to school."
The importance of good role models from other experienced teachers. (Ibid. p. 198)

While Renwick and Vize did not conduct a detailed study of the AGP, they did find (as we did) that most new teachers benefited from the .2 release time, although "there was considerable variation in the amount of time within the .2 teaching entitlement which was allocated to what might be properly defined as the professional development of beginning teachers." Both Renwick and Vize and this case study found that beginning teachers in secondary schools were less likely to receive release time for teacher induction activities. The effectiveness of the .2 release time depends on the relationship forged between the new teacher and tutor teacher. The most effective tutor teachers were proactive in their support.

School-level personnel concur that the local design and implementation of the AGP permits schools, tutors, and new teachers to deliver and receive support activities that better recognize individual needs and school culture. Although many of the activities delivered predate administrative reforms, the emphasis placed on the AGP has increased, particularly in primary schools, because of the school's new responsibilities in relation to registration.

School-level delivery systems build on the collaborative, but individualized, nature of New Zealand's schools. Each school visited stressed the openness, frankness, and willingness of staff to work together to identify and solve problems, including the development of new teachers. However, operationally, schools use widely varying practices to achieve their collaborations. In some schools, collaborations and decision making follow a hierarchical structure. In others, decision making is by consensus, and significant decentralization of responsibilities occurs within the school buildings.

TEACHERS SUPPORT RELEASE TIME
"Those who got the full entitlement describe the support it provided in such ways as `a blessing,' `lovely,' `it's wonderful,' and `I'm spoiled.' At the other end of the spectrum were a few beginning teachers, bitter and disappointed that they had not received the professional support to which they were entitled through the staffing allocation. Those who said they were getting most or all of the `.2 time' were: 66 percent of Auckland teachers; 79 percent of Wellington teachers; and 82 percent of Christchurch teachers."

Windows on Teacher Education, Renwick and Vise (1993)

The regional focus provided by the teacher support services activities allows the different service centers to tailor their programs to urban and rural teachers. In the latter case, more time is spent on networking and personal support. In urban areas, more time is devoted to instructional strategies and classroom management.

On the other hand, although interviewees consistently praised the teacher induction activities and the quality of new teachers, some, particularly those staff with long service, believe that the elimination of the inspectorate diminishes the status of newly registered teachers in the mind of teachers who were certified by the inspectorate and in the mind of the general public.

Reasons for Program Effectiveness

Much of the success of the teacher induction program in New Zealand can be attributed to exogenous factors. Within the educational community, particularly among teachers at a specific school, there is a high degree of camaraderie and collegiality. With few exceptions, the new teachers spoke of their colleagues, and colleagues spoke of the new teachers, as compatriots expected to help one another achieve both individual and common objectives. A corollary of this culture of collegiality is the teachers' attitudes toward the professional development of new teachers. Experienced teachers consider it their duty to pass on to the next generation of teachers their knowledge, skills, and experiences. Although they may have five or so years' teaching experience themselves, tutor teachers take their role of transferring the teaching craft to new teachers extremely seriously.

As noted earlier, this positive attitude toward professional development is shared by principals and senior management staff in schools and supported by their commitment to increasing the capacity of school personnel to perform effectively and by a commitment of resources from the BoTs that ensures that schools manage the funds to translate good intentions into workshops, retreats, release time, and soon. Professional development receives an important share of school discretionary funds. These funds support activities that reinforce both attitudes towards professional development and the content of teacher induction activities.

The expectation that one will act as a tutor and do a good job tutoring as an implicit criterion for teacher promotion to a higher grade provides an incentive for tutors to perform effectively. In addition to the great personal satisfaction that tutors get from tutoring, the potential to receive a promotion and a higher salary indirectly compensates tutors who do not have senior teacher status for their additional teacher duties. Once they have been promoted to senior teacher or higher, serving as a tutor is a part of their normal duties.

The success of the teacher induction program since the 1989 reforms is inextricably linked to the oversupply of teachers and quality of new teachers hired. Those new teachers fortunate enough to obtain jobs have already overcome several hurdles. First, they were accepted by a college of education when these institutions exercised considerable selectivity in admissions, because the number of applicants considerably exceeded the number of student placements. Next, they progressed successfully through college training. Finally, some obtained a permanent position, or a long-term contract position. The quality of new teachers processed through school AGPs has been described as unusually high the past six years. Few new teachers failed to meet school expectations for registration or retention.

Remaining and Emerging Issues

The teacher induction programs operating in most schools are perceived as ensuring that only qualified teachers are registered, and that new teachers are provided sufficient support to ease their transition to teaching and to efficiently learn about the school's culture and operations. However, the program is not universally viewed as successful and will face new challenges as the supply of new teachers fails to satisfy demand.

According to the TRB, in some schools, new teachers and senior management staff did not always have a clear sense of the registration process and documentation required by the TRB. This lack of understanding results in insufficient and inappropriate information being supplied by schools to the TRB. The TRB has then to seek clarification before fully registering the new teacher.
The shift from an oversupply of teachers to a shortage raises issues for new teachers and New Zealand schools. First, in several years the quality of applicants for new teacher positions may be more mixed. Staff from two colleges of education acknowledge that the quality of their applicant pool declined this past year and that they anticipate this trend will accelerate in the years ahead because of the continued strengthening of the New Zealand economy and low teacher salaries. In one case, the college is attempting to maintain student quality and has reduced the number of students (and faculty). Whether they will continue this policy is open to question.
Second, just as competitive college admissions and an oversupply of graduating new teachers led to high-quality new teachers, principals and BoTs now fear that the potential for lower-quality graduates and an increased demand for teachers could reduce the quality of teachers registered in New Zealand. In some cases, schools may not be able to find either registered teachers who already meet minimum standards or new teachers who should be recommended for registration without dropping standards.
Third, to increase the supply of new teachers, the previous Minister of Education proposed that alternative training programs be enacted to deal with the shortfall. Initial reaction from unions and education faculty has been negative.
In purely economic terms, low teacher salaries relative to salaries in other sectors requiring not only comparable, but in many cases less, training impacts the long-term effectiveness of the teacher induction programs. Tutors, who often have about five years' experience, are less likely to remain in teaching than in previous years. Most of the new teachers interviewed for this case study did not expect to be teaching in five years. Teaching is increasingly viewed as a stepping stone to higher-paying jobs in other areas of education or in areas with high levels of personal interaction such as customer service management.
With increased demand for teachers, as well as traditionally high levels of job mobility in New Zealand and the growing problem of attracting teachers to rural schools and "difficult" urban schools, the potential exists that a two-tiered system of teacher induction will develop. Wealthy and attractive suburban schools will continue to attract high-quality new teachers and continue to provide effective AGPs and other professional development activities (supplementing funds provided by the national government with school-raised resources). Less affluent and desirable schools will see the quality of their teacher forces and AGPs decline over time. One consequence of the devolution promulgated by Tomorrow's Schools is a widening of inequities among New Zealand schools. Will principals and BoTs, who currently maintain the quality of the teaching force, compromise their standards to ensure that their schools have teachers in the classroom?
Since the reforms, the proportion of teachers receiving the .2 release time appears to have increased. However, the inability of teachers to obtain release time in rural and "difficult" urban schools remains an issue. The current legislation does not guarantee the new teacher either the .2 release time or the availability of an AGP. The school receives the .2 funding and can use the funds in any way. By tradition and encouragement, most schools use these funds to support new teacher induction. But some, often because they cannot arrange for substitutes, do not. Also, since registration is voluntary³, if a new teacher chose not to be registered (unlikely today but possible in the future, for some) the school would not offer an AGP.
A related issue is the use of the .2 release time. The TRB recommends that new teachers take a lead role in developing their AGP, that the full .2 be available to all new teachers, and that the time be used for supplemental activities. In practice, new teachers do not always have input in the assignment of their tutor teachers, new teachers do not all receive their .2 time, and some new teachers are not able to take as great a role in developing their AGP as recommended because they are required to follow programs already prescribed by their AGPs. Also, some principals would like the ability to offer .1 release time for years one and two. Schools receiving "direct resourcing" have flexibility to experiment in this way; schools not participating in "direct resourcing" do not.
Current support activities offered by the teacher support services do not reach all new teachers. According to two center directors, they do not receive sufficient funds to service most intermediate and secondary schools and some primary schools.
Few linkages exist between the faculties of New Zealand's colleges of education and their former students or schools. Renwick and Vize found that half of the new teachers they surveyed had limited contact with their former colleges. This contact typically consisted of one or two occasions and one or two lectures. As much as anything else, the lack of geographical access to the college accounted for the absence of contact. Both colleges visited are increasing their involvement with schools and are trying to hire new faculty (often on a contract basis) with recent, firsthand experience working in schools. Even with this change in hiring practice, maintaining contact with former students is not viewed as a responsibility of college staff, nor is it rewarded.
Lastly, the way in which new teachers are trained is being reevaluated in New Zealand. Until recently, all preservice training was provided by colleges of education. Now other educational entities are providing training and the possibility exists that others, including primary and secondary schools (through a teacher-pupil apprenticeship program), could offer training in the future. According to the TRB, some of these new providers are seeking approval to recommend their students for provisional registration.

Sustainability

The framework of the current teacher induction program has existed since 1989, but many program elements predate the reform. This suggests that the program has both strong support and resiliency. Although the program will face new challenges in the years ahead as it copes with emerging issues, it has an exceptionally loyal following.

In facing emerging issues, the schools have numerous resources. The devolution to schools of the responsibility for implementing a teacher induction program--combined with an increased focus on professional development in schools, and the individual commitment of teachers and managers to the professional development of the next generation of teachers--has produced a cadre of professionals committed to the teacher induction program. For the foreseeable future, assuming that the .2 funding is available, one anticipates that schools will continue to offer AGPs.

However, the current program is expensive. For the past several years, several members of Parliament have discussed eliminating .2 funding as a means of reducing educational expenditures. To date, the .2 has not been seriously challenged. Although the current New Zealand economy is robust and growing, this does not mean that the funding for AGPs will continue. The government is trying to control the costs of education. At the same time, schools are faced with rapidly growing enrollment and teachers seeking salary increases.

For some schools, the ability to provide AGPs is either totally or substantially dependent on .2 funding. Some schools, through "direct resourcing" from the central government, generate discretionary dollars that can be used to support an AGP, if the government's funding for a teacher induction program is reduced. Yet, few schools can generate a comparable level of resources without access to substantial funds derived from schools' fundraising activities. However, money is not the only critical factor.

"Successful" AGPs also are highly dependent on the input (often in one’s own time) and commitment of the tutor teachers who take on the role of supervisor/mentor.

The current teacher induction program in New Zealand appears to meet its objectives--of quality, acculturation, and support. Nonetheless, due to problems in attracting students into the colleges of education, the ability to maintain the quality of teachers is increasingly questioned by senior management staff and teachers. This past year, the applicant pool for each new teaching position shrank precipitously. Principals and senior management staff are concerned that the effectiveness of the current system may not be sustainable without introducing greater accountability and safeguards. The most common suggestion, by principals, senior management staff, and experienced teachers, to sustain the effectiveness of the current teacher induction program is to replace the registration process by returning to teacher certification by an independent body.

Adaptability

The New Zealand approach to teacher induction is characterized by decentralization and extensive teacher involvement. This approach thrives in schools with a strong culture of support. The schools visited are nurturing, encouraging cooperation among teachers and between teachers and administrators.

The success of the New Zealand program requires a personal commitment on the part of principals, senior management staff, tutors, and new teachers. Its success is not dependent on a formal structured program or well-articulated syllabus (see the Japan case study for an example of such an approach) but rather on a set of broadly defined criteria and a strong sense of professionalism. To adapt the New Zealand approach to another environment, all participants need to be willing to buy-in to the activities and be willing to invest themselves. This willingness to learn from each other and to develop a strong relationship among staff that transcends the typical conception for fulfilling job responsibilities is critically important. "Our AGP requires openness, leadership not bossing, and the initiative of teachers."

Each AGP depends on a specific individual for its focus, usually a principal or deputy principal. In creative, successful programs, this key individual establishes a vision. The vision is compatible with and grows out of each school's vision and culture. Schools that lack visionary leadership and a commitment to professional growth may have difficulty implementing a school-designed, individual teacher-focused support program. As one principal said, "It always comes down to the people involved. A culture of support is essential."

Equally important is the willingness to encourage and tolerate diversity in program design and implementation. The Ministry, NZQA, and TRB provide broad frameworks and some advice and guidance procedures, but considerable flexibility in program design is allowed . The most successful school programs are creative and focus on each new teacher's individual needs.

To adapt the New Zealand program requires a commitment of financial resources. New Zealand matches its rhetoric by supporting professional development with substantial funding. The .2 funding equates to approximately US$3,000 for each new teacher. In addition, schools provide money for the professional development of new teachers from school-level discretionary funds. Finally, the central government funds teacher support services and member-level priority professional development programs.

New Zealand's current program is successful, but it has not been tested by the demands of large numbers of new teachers that are expected to flood the educational system over the next five years. Institutionalizing individual-based support becomes logistically and managerially more complicated where tutor teachers must support more than two new teachers. In locales with large enrollment growth and high teacher turnover, school resources could become stretched. No safeguards exist in the New Zealand framework to monitor program quality and respond to declines in advice and guidance supports, should they emerge.

Conclusion

New teachers in New Zealand are provided a school-designed and implemented Advice and Guidance Program. The design and implementation of the program is guided by a framework developed by the Teacher Registration Board. A key element of New Zealand's approach to teacher induction is the provision of .2 time to new and tutor teachers to participate in support activities.

Common elements of the teacher induction program include use of a tutor teacher, observations by beginning teachers of other classrooms and schools, attendance at teacher support services courses, and observations by tutors of beginning teacher performance. Although they are a central feature of the TRB framework, assessment and completion of administrative paperwork to fulfill registration requirements are not predominant foci of teacher induction programs.

New Zealand's educational reforms are still being implemented. New roles and responsibilities have been established, curricula redefined, and new assessment policies are being put into place. Although the importance of teacher induction programs is well entrenched in New Zealand, the evolution of "Tomorrow's Schools" policies will have an impact on teacher induction.

HOW DID YOUR EXPECTATIONS FOR TEACHING CHANGE OVER THE FIRST YEAR?
"I became less of a perfectionist, although I still put in very long hours."
"Children are not going to learn to my expectations. It takes some longer than others at this age and you can't expect the same results. I used to feel that I failed and was inadequate when children didn't achieve what I expected. I'm more realistic now; more relaxed. My tutor was my rock to lean on."
"It's been wonderful. The staff at this school are so user-friendly. They listened to me from day one. It made the hours I worked worth it."
"I got faster and found out how I want to teach."

References

Battersby, David (1989).: The Beginning Teacher Scheme: An Evaluation. Research Programme Acquisitions Series, no. 243. Wellington, NZ: Department of Education.
Battersby, David. Requirements for certification.: National Education, August 1989, vol. 71, no. 3.
Calder, Ian, and Mitchell, David (ed.), (1992).: Staff Development and Teacher Appraisal. Monitoring Today's Schools, Report No. 8. Hamilton: University of Waikato.
Cameron, Marie, and Grundnoff, Lexie, (1992).: From College to...? Asking New Zealand Principals about the New System of Hiring Beginning Teachers. Research Information for Teachers, no. 2. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.
Cameron, Marie, and Grundnoff, Lexie, (1993).: What Principals Think of Their Beginning Teachers. Research Information for Teachers, no. 2. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.
Cameron, Marie, et al. (1990).: Finding Your First Job: From College to Classroom Under New Rules. Research Information for Teachers, no. 2. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.
New Zealand Council for Educational Research (1995).: Sixtieth Annual Report 1994-95. Wellington, NZ.
New Zealand Ministry of Education (1995).: Teacher Training and Professional Development Practices in New Zealand. In Darling-Hammond, Linda, and Cobb, Velma (Eds.), Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in APEC Members. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.
New Zealand Ministry of Education (1996).: Education in New Zealand 1996, (statistics pamphlet produced b Data Management and Analysis Section). Wellington, NZ.
New Zealand Qualifications Authority (November 1995).: Framework and Schools.
Parton, Lesley.: Being a Tutor Teacher: Getting off to a Good Start. Education Advisory Services, Auckland College of Education.
Parton, Lesley, and Morland, Doug (1995).: Evaluation Report for Beginning Teachers Course.
Philips, David, (1995).: Exploratory Survey of APEC Members on Teacher Induction: New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand: Learning and Evaluation Policy, Ministry of Education.
Pollock, Graeme, and Harrison, Kay.: Teacher Appraisal for Professional Development.
PPTA News. Vol. 16, No. 12, November 1995.
Renwick, Margery, and Vize, June, (1993).: Windows on Teacher Education: Student Progress Through Colleges of Education and the First Year in the Classroom. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.
Robertson, Jan (December 1993).: Teacher Development in the New Educational Environment. New Zealand Journal of Educational Administration, no. 8, pp. 10-15.
Shaw, Helen (1995).: Focusing on the End Product for 1993, A survey of Employer Satisfaction with 1993 graduates of the Wellington College of Education. Wellington College of Education.
Teacher Registration Board (1995).: Advice and Guidance Programmes for Teachers. Wellington, NZ.
Teacher Registration Board (1994).: Becoming Fully Registered (kit for teachers who are provisionally-registered or registered subject to confirmation). Wellington, NZ.
Teacher Registration Board (1994).: Handbook: Information about Teacher Registration. Wellington, NZ.
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Teacher Registration Board.: Te Rehita (a newsletter), no.2, November 1995.

Acknowledgments

Thanks are extended to the agencies and schools that provided information and materials during our site work in New Zealand. Many forms, programs guidelines, and reference materials from Eastern Hutt School, Howick College, Kohia Teachers Centre, ManuKau Education Center, Maidstone Intermediate School, Naenae College, PapuKura Resource Centre, Porirua School, Wellington College of Education, and Tamaki Center were reviewed during the study. We also acknowledge the principals, deputy principals, tutor teachers, and first- and second-year teachers, as well as the directors of teacher support services in Auckland and Wellington, the director of the TRB, the deputy principal of the Wellington College of Education and researchers from the NZCER, who all gave their time and reflection in site visit interviews, and whose input was invaluable to the case study.

¹ An announcement on May 10, 1996 that a bill making registration compulsory would be passed, reversed the 1991 legislation that was in effect during the time in which the site visit was conducted (December 1995).

² Historically, New Zealand teachers were paid directly by the central government. Recently, a group of schools piloted "direct resourcing " and this process is now an option for all schools. Under direct resourcing, schools receive a member-determined amount per teacher times the number of teachers in the school. Schools where the average teacher's salary is less than the member-determined salary level receive funding in excess of actual teacher salaries. This excess can be used by the school for any educational purpose. Schools with average teacher salaries above the member level could "lose " under direct resourcing. In schools without direct resourcing, salaries continue to be paid centrally.

³ As noted in footnote 1, recent legislation in New Zealand is to mean a return to mandatory registration for all teachers.
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[Chapter 5 (part 2 of 3)]

[Chapter 6: Lessons Learned, Challenges Remaining]