A r c h i v e d I n f o r m a t i o n

From Students of Teaching to Teachers of Students: Teacher Induction Around the Pacific Rim - January 1997

Chapter 4 (continued)

"The Training Year": Teacher Induction in Japan

David Nohara

Impact

Overall, the teacher induction program is viewed favorably by participants and other related teachers and administrators. Based on surveys and anecdotal evidence, most involved feel the program is a highly valuable introduction to the issues related to life as a teacher. It is generally regarded as having deepened the teachers' sense of their mission, provided them with valuable tools for handling future challenges, and created a heightened sensitivity to areas in which they need further improvement and which they may wish to explore on a deeper level in the future. However, similar to findings in the other case studies, there have been no formal summative evaluations of the program's success, such as assessing whether students taught by teachers who received the induction training perform better than those taught by teachers who did not receive the training.

Introducing Change

When proposed, the new teacher induction program was supported by large segments of the educational community. Over time, most of those who originally expressed reservations and concerns about the program have become program supporters.

The only groups initially opposed to the new teacher induction program were the political parties of the far left and the teachers' union. At the time of program implementation relations between the teachers' union and Monbusho, were not as good as they are today. Specific concerns of the teachers' union included the belief that professional development is the responsibility of the individual teacher, the school, and the local district. It was felt that a national training curriculum was inappropriate since it was more important for teachers to develop a sensitivity to their own situations.

The teachers' union, faced with declining membership, was also concerned about the influence that Monbusho had over new teachers. It feared at the time that by requiring all new teachers to participate in an intensive training program of its design, Monbusho would effectively sway new teachers away from the union and its positions on various issues.

Since that time, the teachers' union has split into two new unions. The one that retained the majority of the membership has, over the past several years, taken a more conciliatory stance toward Monbusho and is no longer opposed to the Teacher Induction Program. The other union is still officially opposed to the program.

Reactions of the Newly Appointed Teachers

Teachers interviewed for this report all reported that when they first started the program, the number of days of training and intensity of the activities seemed excessive. When they finished the program, however, many of them were left wishing that they could continue, still having so many questions. While the in-school experience depended to a large degree on the personal relationship they were able to build with their guidance teacher, the climate of support among the entire faculty is frequently noted as one of the major benefits of the program. In the out-of-school portion, they welcomed the opportunity to meet regularly with those in the same or similar situations, since at their own schools, there were usually no more than two newly appointed teachers. Realizing that many of the problems they were facing were common to all teachers in their first year provided them with a sense of relief. They were also able to exchange ideas for handling common problems and to hear from other teachers of situations that they had not yet encountered, but would most probably in the future.

"Last year, as a first-year teacher, I was an assistant homeroom teacher. However, in May (the second month of the school year), the head homeroom teacher became injured and had to spend about a month in the hospital. I had to assume the duties of the regular homeroom teacher even though I had very little experience. These duties included maintaining contact with the students' parents. There was one student in particular where this was difficult because the student was chronically absent. I received a lot of useful advice from other teachers regarding how to deal with this students' parents. Although I can’t say the student came to school regularly after I spoke with the parents, the situation would have been a lot worse without the help of the other teachers. In this and many other instances, they all pitched in to help me."

--Upper Secondary School Teacher (2nd year)

Compared with their university training, teachers cite the induction program as being much more practical and directly applicable to school situations. For example, in Chiba City, one activity for elementary and lower secondary school teachers is a five-part theme research project in which they design a lesson plan targeted toward a specific goal such as "How To Increase Student Motivation Through the Use of Materials," or "How To Ensure That All Students Are Actively Engaged in Learning."

Because these projects are geared toward developing lesson plans, the "research" often involves trying out different techniques in their own lessons. One participant stated that this project was so closely related to class activities that it was difficult to distinguish the work done for the teacher training and the work done for her own lessons.

Based on 1995 survey results, 97 percent of participants felt the training cruises were beneficial. The most often-cited reason was the opportunity to interact with teachers from other areas of the country and other types of schools.

Along with the benefits of these intensive training activities came concerns about being given special attention and being separated from the school and their students. Despite a school atmosphere supportive of new teachers, some teachers could not help but feel intimidated by the confidence of the many teachers giving them advice and pressured by the implicit expectations and the special attention. To a large degree, these are feelings common to any person just starting out in a Japanese organization, but the systematic singling out of the new teachers may exacerbate this problem.

Furthermore, most new teachers were concerned that the time away from the school and their students might impede upon their assimilation into school life and the development of meaningful relationships with their students. For the lessons during which the teacher was attending training sessions, leaving or discussing lesson plans with the substitute instructor was an added responsibility. In some cases, this became a learning experience for the new teacher, who could benefit from the guidance of an additional senior teacher; in other cases, whether the students were learning and behaving while the teacher was away was a consistent worry. For some teachers, these types of worries diminished as they developed good working relationships with the substitute teachers and their students, but others continued to have these worries throughout the year.

How Have You Benefited from the Induction Training?
"More so than content, the best thing about the training was that I was able to meet on a regular basis with others in the same situation. Although not everything I learned last year was applicable then, this year I can see the usefulness of much of what I learned last year."
--High School Teacher (2nd year)

"At first, I was worried that I was struggling more so than I should have been. However, in the group discussions at the out-of-school training, I was quite relieved to see that I was not unusual and that many others were in the same situation -- it was only natural that I was having these problems."

--Elementary School Teacher (1st year)

"In the group discussions, even though we didn't have much experience, we were able to work together to come up with ideas for dealing with different issues. In one particular instance, there was a discussion about how to get boys and girls to interact better. This was a problem I was having at the time. One suggestion that came up was to make sure that when groups were made within the class for various activities, they include both boys and girls and not to let the students divide themselves. I did this for a school-wide activity and it worked very well."

-Elementary School Teacher (1st year)

"The residential training workshop was very useful. Through some of the more physical activities, such as the recreation and the orienteering, I got in touch with my physical self, which although not directly applicable to instruction, helped me to understand that learning is not just a mental activity."

--Elementary School Teacher (1st year)

"The most difficult thing was dealing with the children. It's very difficult to strike a balance between teaching to the group and to the individual. These type of problems were addressed directly by my guidance teacher in the consultations I had with her and in the topical discussions at the outside-school training."

--Elementary School Teacher (1st year)

"My biggest difficulty was classroom management. During class the students would constantly barrage me with things not always related to the lesson. Some students would say whatever came into their head. One senior teacher at the school in particular talked with me about stating clearly to the students the rules for the class, establishing from the beginning things that were relevant and things that were not. As the year progressed, the students got better about following the rules for asking questions and sticking to the topic."

--Elementary School Teacher (1st year)

One unintended benefit of frequently leaving the school building reported by several teachers is the sense of sanctuary provided by the out-of-school training. All teachers,but especially teachers in their first year of employment, can feel overwhelmed at times by the fast pace of school life. Attending the out-of-school training allows the beleaguered teacher to step away from the pressures of school life and find support among a group of peers.

Reactions of Principals and Senior Teachers

When the program was first introduced, beyond the formal opposition of the teacher's union, many more teachers and administrators had their own personal reservations. Building principals were most concerned that the number of training days was excessive and the reduction in time devoted to instruction and guidance would place a strain on the staff. The principals, the senior teachers, and the new teachers themselves were concerned that the time away from their students would slow the teacher's assimilation into school life. Finally, on a more general level, many senior teachers felt that the skills necessary to be an effective teacher could be acquired only through experience and could not be taught.

The provision of supplemental teachers went a long way in allaying principals' concerns about the strain on staff resources. Now, principals are generally supportive. Those interviewed claim that because of the program, teachers now appear to be acquiring the necessary skills and knowledge faster than teachers in the past. Asked to think back on their own experiences as new teachers, principals and senior teachers felt that although the other teachers in the building felt an obligation to assist them, the informality of this mentoring made professional development much more inconsistent. The teachers who were not shy about asking questions had a good awareness of their weak areas, and if they were so motivated were able to seek and obtain appropriate advice and materials. However, for the teachers who did not possess this degree of initiative, the first several years were rough. Furthermore, without the systematic introduction to all aspects of school life, it was often several years before teachers had a full grasp of the major school-related issues.

Note that although principals are more likely to say that devoting such a large number of days to training is more necessary today than when the program was first introduced, most are quick to add that this does not mean they favor any further increases in the number of training days.

Some administrators and senior teachers interviewed expressed the opinion that today's incoming teachers are less likely to ask questions of senior teachers on their own initiative. Some cited an increased sense of self-reliance among the younger generation, others an increasing fear of appearing to struggle. Regardless of the reason, the fact that the teacher induction program expects all newly appointed teachers to seek advice from more senior teachers minimizes the impact of this problem.

Regarding the question of whether much of what the program aims to impart on teachers can be gained only through experience, several staff members of the Education Centers and the boards of education responsible for the program acknowledged that this statement had a good deal of validity. They responded, however, that the program does not attempt to spoon-feed teachers and provide them with all the skills and knowledge necessary to be an effective teacher in just one year. Rather, the induction program is merely a systematic way of presenting teachers with a broad range of issues and situations that they will confront during their careers and to cause them to start to think about how they might approach these issues and situations.

Reasons for Program Effectiveness

In discussing program effectiveness, it is useful to examine three types of factors: program structure, the personalities of the individuals involved in delivery, and program content. Based on discussions with program implementers and participants, it appears that all three factors play a major role. Furthermore, while no one factor alone is sufficient for success, two factors, program structure and the personalities of those involved in delivery, appear to be necessary conditions.

Program Structure

Program structure is defined here as the requirements for the days of training for both in-school and out-of-school training and the provision of guidance teachers, subject specialists, and supplemental teachers. Program structure is important in that it ensures that all new teachers have the opportunity for interactions with their peers and with veteran teachers. Through their interactions with others in similar situations, newly appointed teachers not only gain a sense of reassurance and confidence from exchanging experiences, but they also learn a great deal from hearing the ideas of others about how to deal with various challenges. Some new teachers even say that, in some cases, it is more useful for them to interact with teachers who have only a few years of experience than with veteran teachers. They say the younger teachers, with their own first-year experience still fresh in their minds, are much more sensitive to participants' situation.

Based on participants' comments, any meeting of newly appointed teachers would be beneficial. However, such meetings might not take place as frequently, or at all, if the teachers did not have the support provided by release time and travel allowances. Recent program participants say that after the program ended, at first they met informally with the friends they made during the program, but that as their schedules became tighter with increasing responsibilities at the school, such gatherings became increasingly rare.

Regarding the experiences of new teachers at school, it is true that an atmosphere of support exists naturally; however, the structure provided by the program ensures that this support is consistent. Based on discussions with senior teachers about their own experiences as newly appointed teachers, the success of their transition rested heavily on their ability to develop a rapport with the senior teachers. Often, mentoring relationships similar to that which new teachers today have with their guidance teachers arose, but not always. Thus, by requiring that all teachers interact with senior teachers and that there will be at least one person on whom the newly appointed teacher can rely heavily, the program attempts to ensure that, to the extent possible, the development of mentoring relationships are not left up to chance.

Furthermore, one new teacher added that while it is nice to receive advice from many different teachers, advice from one teacher sometimes conflicts with that received from another. In these cases, having a guidance teacher appointed as the central figure in their training helps put the different bits of advice in perspective.

Personalities of Those Involved in Delivery

"In the end, it is the personality of the guidance teacher that is most crucial to success. Different materials are provided by the prefecture, but successful mentoring depends upon the guidance teacher’s experience and ability to communicate. For example, one problem in Japanese schools are the one or two students in each school who are registered, but who never come to school. In this case, materials can only do so much. The new teacher must see how experienced teachers handle the situation."

--Upper Secondary School Guidance Teacher

All people involved in the program--either as participants or administrators--acknowledge that the personalities, knowledge, and abilities of the in-school and out-of-school trainers are a major influence on the success of the program. The primary method of program delivery is discussion (as opposed to independent research), thus the ability to empathize with the new teachers, make them feel comfortable, motivate them, and communicate ideas effectively is paramount. Teachers with these qualities are sought as trainers. Most likely, these types of individuals helped new teachers make a smooth transition even before there was a teacher training program. One trainer interviewed described the importance of the trainers' personal characteristics: "With a bad design and good trainers, the teachers would still learn, but with a good design and bad trainers, the teachers would learn nothing." In addition to trying to ensure that only experienced, talented teachers with excellent personal interaction skills are used as guidance teachers, the program distributes responsibility for most duties so as to minimize the influence of any one particular individual. Program designers and trainers at the boards of education and Education Centers work in teams. Not only does this reduce the chances that the program would be negatively impacted in the case of a weak team member, but ensures that the program maintains some consistency from year to year as program designers and trainers are transferred.

Program Content

Upon closer examination, the content of the program is also a major determinant of program effectiveness. The Monbusho and the boards of education who design the content of the program attempt to include a broad range of issues in the training. (See Exhibits 1 and 4.) It is unlikely that this range of topics would be addressed in informal mentoring relationships. The impact of this comprehensive training curriculum is seen in the comments of principals and other senior teachers who claim that teachers who participated in the training program adapt to school life faster than those in the past. One principal estimated that the knowledge that teachers gain in just one year of the program would take about five years to acquire through experience and informal mentoring alone.

Although the program provides only an introduction to most topics, prefectures and designated cities also include in their out-of-school training plans in-depth treatments of particular topics. One topic may be spread over several training days and may require the teachers to do substantial work outside of the training sessions. In many cases, teachers develop lesson plans aimed toward a particular educational goal, such as increasing participation or teaching a specific concept. While most teachers say this is an extremely enriching experience, it is unlikely that it is something they would do if they did not have the structure, guidance, and resources provided by the program.

Remaining and Emerging Issues

Monbusho plans no major changes for the Teacher Induction Program in the near future, nor did any of the parties interviewed express any major dissatisfaction with the program. Many principals and other senior teachers who initially questioned the need for such an intensive program now support the program. The program participants generally feel that the training is worthwhile, and indirect evidence is supplied by the high rates of enrollment among recent program participants in optional summer training conducted at the Education Centers. Even the major teacher's union no longer officially opposes the program.

Based on our interviews, we uncovered few remaining and emerging issues. Those that do question the program's merit cite the same reasons that the teacher's union did when the program was first introduced, namely, whether it is appropriate for Monbusho to have such a strong influence over professional development. Some teachers still believe that taking the teachers out of the school and away from their students on a regular basis makes it more difficult for them to develop quality relationships with the students. Additionally, some feel that singling out a group of teachers for special treatment only reinforces the notion in the minds of students and parents that these teachers are not yet ready to teach.

When asked what they would change about the program, current and recent participants stated that the most useful activities, and the ones they wish they could have had more of, were the ones such as the theme research projects and the group discussions where they were actively involved in researching and discussing a topic. Activities that were thought of as less useful were some of the lectures, not because they were not relevant, but because the participants could have derived the same benefit from reading a book or article on the topic.

Some questioned the timing of the training. Certain topics were introduced that would not be relevant until their second year or later. For example, training for all new upper secondary school teachers included several lectures and discussions on how to be an effective homeroom teacher, even though 24 percent of the new teachers had no homeroom responsibilities and only 7.7 percent served as main homeroom teachers. In such situations, some participants felt the training would be more meaningful if it could occur when they were actually in the situation rather than a year or two prior. Thus, some felt it might be more effective to extend the training period and spread out the training activities so that teachers could take advantage of them at the time they were most applicable.

Among principals and guidance teachers, the only suggested changes were relatively minor ones, such as including particular topics for discussions, like bullying, volunteer activities, and how the revolution in information technology affects schools. Some guidance teachers wanted more flexible training schedules to accommodate other school activities. For instance, in-school training activities are supposed to take place within the instructional day, but some guidance teachers felt that allowing them to conduct them after school would be more convenient. However, some guidance teachers noted that such activities sometimes extend beyond school hours anyway, thus, it is not a serious concern.

Sustainability

Having been generally well-received by all relevant parties and having the support of national law, the teacher induction program is likely to continue in its current form for quite some time. The support for the program seems only to grow as an increasing number of teachers have experienced the program firsthand and have a favorable image of it. The high cost of the program, relative to less comprehensive teacher induction models (see Chapter Two) might lead some to consider alternative uses for these funds, especially with a troubled economy. However, because the total cost of the program has actually been declining, due to lower numbers of new teacher appointments, it is less likely to be threatened. Furthermore, the program is mandated by Japanese law, making any possible efforts to scale it back or terminate it extremely difficult.

Adaptability

Given the difficult transition faced by new teachers in all societies, a program similar to Japan's would likely bring about positive results in any school system. The more relevant question, however, is whether other education systems can afford or are willing to make a substantial commitment of resources to such a program.

One of the major reasons for program effectiveness mentioned earlier was the dedication of time to training activities. Without the time set aside, opportunities for consistent and substantial interaction with peers and senior teachers are limited. In Japan's case, this time exists only because there is a financial commitment to providing supplemental teachers. In school systems lacking the financial resources or commitment, a program of this magnitude is probably impossible, unless first-year teachers and guidance teachers were willing to use their free time for training purposes.

Another reason that might make it difficult to achieve success with a similar program in other educational systems is that the program is particularly well-suited to Japan's organizational culture. In Japan, it is the responsibility of senior members of a group to ensure that new members are assimilated appropriately. Thus a program that formalizes this relationship is more a reaffirmation of a natural relationship rather than a new system. Although many of the out-of-school activities involved group discussions and emphasized that there are different approaches to a problem, the program requires the newly appointed teacher to rely heavily on senior teachers for advice. This is consistent with Japanese culture where traditionally, the new group member is expected to follow the words and actions of senior members. In societies where individuals not only are expected to be more self-reliant but who also are more likely to question the ideas of their seniors, such a deferential system might not be as effective or appropriate.

Even if an education system is unable or unwilling to commit the resources necessary to replicate Japan's teacher induction program, or even if its teachers would not take well to such intensive instruction from other teachers, there are some aspects of the Japanese experience that could be useful to other systems considering instituting a teacher induction program. First, a support group of peers most likely would benefit new teachers in any culture. Even if they did not meet as frequently as the Japanese teachers, and even if their discussions were less focused, simply being able to discuss one's experiences with others in similar situations would be of great psychological benefit.

Another feature that is dependent on money only in terms of degree of intensity is the idea of giving one teacher the responsibility for assisting a new teacher to make a smooth transition. New teachers may be hesitant to bother seemingly busy staff members for advice, they may not know where to look or whom to ask for assistance on a specific topic, or they may be unaware that they do not have a full grasp of all the issues relevant to them. While mentoring relationships may very well develop anyway, giving the responsibility of helping the newly appointed teacher to the entire staff can in reality mean that it is the responsibility of no one in particular. Designating one senior teacher as someone the newly appointed teachers should be regularly communicating with adds consistency to the experiences of new teachers. Even without a set schedule of meetings or a list of topics to cover, much can be gained from such a designation. The impact will ultimately depend on the personalities of the two parties, but having one teacher designated as the first point of assistance at the very least provides a starting point for the newly appointed teacher.

Finally, regarding content, if teachers in other systems are like their Japanese counterparts, they will respond enthusiastically to the opportunity to explore in greater depth topics directly linked to the classroom. Examples of topics include using instructional materials or teaching a particular concept. Having had several years of a theoretical approach to education in their teacher training programs, new teachers are much more likely to embrace more practical research. Again, not all educational systems may be able or willing to undertake this type of training to the extent that the Japanese system does, but even a brief training session of this sort would be of benefit to the teacher and student provided it were directly applicable to the classroom.

Conclusion

Japan's teacher induction program attempts to systematize the process of transition from student to teacher. It identifies the key factors for success for those who have good first-year experiences, such as the development of a mentoring relationship with a senior teacher and interaction with peers. And it tries to ensure this type of experience for all teachers. To this structure the program adds a comprehensive training curriculum that touches on all the major issues teachers are likely to face. And to ensure that new teachers and their guidance teachers have sufficient time for training activities, it provides supplemental staff support. Despite some initial opposition and skepticism, the program has been generally well received by all involved. While it can be said that the program succeeds because of the financing behind it, there are nonetheless key lessons for other education systems contemplating a teacher induction program.

EPILOGUE: LOOKING BACK ON THE FIRST YEAR

It’s been one year since I was suddenly appointed as a teacher. It seems as though the first time I stood up in front of the students to greet them was just the other day. Everything I did I was doing for the first time. Even though I was surrounded by things I didn’t understand, I was filled with expectations and couldn’t help but have fun during the first term. The students were even more charming than the ones I taught during my practicum, so I couldn’t help but like them. I liked them so much that I disliked being taken away from them for teacher induction activities.
Suddenly, in the second term, the children grew up. Things I would have let go before, saying, "Oh, but they’re cute," now became problems. So many events were happening at a frenetic pace. I was surprised at how much time and energy was required to prepare for the demonstration class I had to present. Beside the fact that I had less time to spend with the students, it seemed that every day at least one of them had some small problem or another. Even if I started working every Sunday morning, it seemed as though I could never get caught up with all the work I had to do. Psychologically, I felt worn down. When times were tough, all I could think about was quitting. At those times, the people I got the most support from were my friends from the teacher induction program. Everyone seemed to be struggling; everyone seemed to have much bigger problems. I came to realize that my problems were rather small in comparison. We took in the words of the lecturers like parched land soaks up water. When I was having problems with the children, being away from them (for just one day a week) proved helpful. Not only did it give me a chance to readjust my feelings, but it gave them the same opportunity.
When I ran into problems, because of the support of my fellow fifth-grade teachers, I could say to myself, "You are not alone." I shall never forget how their encouragement and assistance helped me to somehow overcome my difficulties time and time again.
During the theme research projects at the out-of-school training, it was rumored that I would present my project as a representative of all the newly appointed teachers. This in fact happened. As I thought, having all the other newly appointed teachers there watching me only served as encouragement. One fruit of the project was that through all the research I did to prepare my materials, I was able to improve my approach to teaching.
When the third term came around, I was surprised at how much the students had matured and gained in terms of composure. However, this wasn’t solely a result of my influence. Rather, it was the combined effect of all the teachers. In particular, the supplemental teacher, who always taught patiently but firmly, helped the students, and me, to learn about so many different things. She never spoon-fed them, and never forced answers upon the students. And when they did come up with answers, she would always reply with more questions. The students were fortunate to have that type of teaching as their foundation.
During my first year, I met many people and encountered new experiences every day. This year spent alongside the children is one year I think I’ll never forget.

References

Feiler, Bruce (1995).: Learning to Bow.
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture (1994).: Education in Japan: A Graphic Presentation. Tokyo: author.
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture (1994).: New Directions in School Education: Fostering Strength for Life: Japanese Government Policies in Education, Science and Culture 1994. Tokyo: author.
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (1995).: Monbusho. Tokyo: author.
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Local Education Support Bureau (January 1996).: Kyouiku Iinkai Geppou. Board of Education Monthly Newsletter, No. 549. Tokyo: author.
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Local Education Support Bureau (November 1994).: Kyouiku Iinkai Geppou. Board of Education Monthly Newsletter, No. 533. Tokyo: author.
Kyouin no Shishitsu Nouryoku no Koujou Housakutou ni Tsuite (Measures to Improve the Abilities of Educational Personnel), Report to the Minister of Education's Standing Subcommittee on Teacher Training, December 18, 1987.
White, Merry.: The Japanese Educational Challenge: A Commitment to Children. New York: The Free Press.

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgement and thanks are extended to the teachers, administrators, and staff of the following schools and agencies whose contributions were invaluable to this case study: International Affairs Planning Division of the Science and International Affairs Bureau and the Teacher Training Division of the Local Education Support Bureau, both of the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture; the Chiba City Board of Education, the Chiba City Education Center, and the Chiba Prefecture Board of Education; Sonno Elementary School (Chiba City); Matsudo High School (Chiba Prefecture); and Gunma Prefecture Education Center. In addition, I relied quite heavily on the previous APEC report on teacher training and certification and the survey response filled out by Mr. Matsunaga.
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[Chapter 4 (part 2 of 3)]

[Chapter 5: Teacher Induction in an Era of Educational Reform]