Introduction  

The Japanese educational system is a moderately centralized, single-track system. The government is responsible for setting national standards for curriculum development, for authorizing textbooks, and for ensuring the uniform use of textbooks in all schools. Compulsory education in Japan extends only through the lower secondary level (i.e., through approximately age 15), and competition for positions in upper secondary schools - and later for positions in universities - is usually intense.

Stucture of Schooling  

The Japanese educational system follows what is commonly referred to as the "6-3-3 system" - students attend a six-year elementary school, followed by a three-year junior high school, followed by a three-year high school. The first nine years of schooling are compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 15. The three years of upper secondary education are non-compulsory, though most students - about 96 percent (Frasz & Kato, p.7) - pursue some form of upper secondary education.

All public elementary and junior high school students, regardless of ability, are educated together during the 9 years of compulsory education. At the high school level, however, students are more likely to be separated according to ability. Types of high schools include schools that provide general academic programs (51 percent of high schools), schools that provide vocational programs (18 percent of schools), and comprehensive high schools that offer both general and vocational programs (31 percent). In 1992, approximately 72.5 percent of upper secondary students were enrolled in general academic programs, and 27.5 percent were enrolled in vocational programs (OECD, p.138). Though most public high schools are under the direct jurisdiction of prefectural and local governments, a small percentage of high schools are maintained directly by the national government.

Pre-elementary education in Japan is non-compulsory and takes place at day care centers (for children aged 1 to 5) and kindergartens (for children aged 3 to 5).

School Governance and Finance  

Governance  The Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture (Monbusho) is the national authority administering the educational system. The Monbusho "sets the guidelines to which all Japanese schools must adhere" (Frasz & Kato, p.19). The Monbusho works with the Cabinet and Diet to develop budget estimates and to establish national policy for the educational system. The Monbusho's responsibilities include "prescribing curricula, standards, and requirements. It approves textbooks and assumes responsibility for the content and implementation of public examinations. It directly oversees all national educational institutions, and allocates resources and provides general supervision to prefectures, municipalities, and private institutions of higher education" (Frasz & Kato, p.20).

At the prefectural level, the governor appoints a five-member board of education which, in turn, appoints the prefectural superintendent of education. Prefectural educational authorities have responsibility for operating schools (primarily upper secondary schools) established by the prefecture. They also license teachers, appoint teachers to elementary and lower secondary schools, and provide advice and funds to municipalities. (Frasz & Kato, pp.20-21).

At the municipal level, the mayor appoints a municipal board of education. These boards operate the public elementary and lower secondary schools within their jurisdictions, adopt textbooks from the list approved by the Monbusho, make recommendations to prefectural boards of education about teacher appointments and dismissals, and conduct in-service professional development for teachers and other school staff. (Frasz & Kato, p.21).

At the school level, the principal has responsibility for determining the precise school calendar (including some holidays) and for setting the starting and ending times for the school day. Most Japanese schools are in operation six days a week, with a half-day on Saturday. The Monbusho mandates a minimum number of hours of instruction at each grade level (with increasing minimum hours as children get older), but in most cases, local education authorities choose to extend the number of hours of schooling children receive well beyond the minimum required.

Finance  Schooling is funded by both the Monbusho and prefectural governments. In 1992, approximately 24.5 percent of funding for elementary and secondary education came from national sources, while the remaining 75.5 percent of funding came from the prefectural level (OECD, p.117) (see Footnote 1). Though most public schools are funded from both national and prefectural sources, a small number of "national schools" are funded primarily by the Monbusho.

Curriculum  

Curriculum standards are primarily determined by the Courses of Study published by the Monbusho, which consist of educational objectives and goals for student achievement at every grade level and for every subject, along with guidance and directions to teachers for the design of effective curricula. Teachers then plan their curriculum and instruction to reflect the requirements of the Course of Study.

Guided by the Course of Study for Kindergartens, the preschool curriculum is primarily nonacademic. It emphasizes independent activities, instruction through play, and individual guidance of the development of the child's intellectual and social skills.

The elementary school curriculum is divided into three major categories: regular subjects, moral education, and special activities. All elementary school students receive instruction in nine regular subjects, including Japanese language, social studies, arithmetic, science, life environment studies, music, arts and handicrafts, homemaking, and physical education. Moral education classes include health and safety, disciplined life, courtesy, understanding and confidence, public manners, and environmental awareness. Special activities fall into four major areas, encompassing class, school association, club, and school activities.

The junior high school curriculum is similar to that for elementary schools, also encompassing regular subjects, moral education, and special activities. However, junior high school students have additional courses, such as fine arts, technical arts, and foreign languages, from which they may choose elective coursework.

The high school curriculum for students who pursue the general (academic) program include both regular subjects and special activities (moral education is presumed to be incorporated in other subjects at the high school level). Pursuant to the requirements of a new Course of Study for High Schools, in effect since 1994, students pursuing the academic high school program are required to take courses in Japanese language, geography and history, civics education, mathematics, science, health and physical education, arts, and home economics; students also take two elective courses each year (Moriyoshi & Trelfa, p.8). Students who enroll in vocational education programs at the upper secondary level spend less time studying academic subjects and more time in vocational classes that prepare them for professions.

Standards for Student Performance and Gateways to Promotion and Higher Education  

Standards for student performance in Japan are maintained through the combination of the Courses of Study adopted by the Monbusho and the country's rigorous system of high school and university entrance examinations.

Promotion.  At the elementary and junior high school levels, promotion from year to year is essentially automatic. Assessment at the elementary level is intermittent and conducted at the teacher's and school's discretion. In junior high schools, testing becomes focused on preparing students for high school entrance exams, for promotion to high school education is not automatic, and students compete for positions in high schools. However, despite fierce competition for admission to prestigious high schools, the vast majority (95.9 percent) of junior high school students pass high school entrance examinations, gaining admission to some high school.

Examinations.  The junior high school years are spent, i n large part, preparing for the high school entrance examinations. These examinations are typically administered by either the prefecture or the municipality, though national and private high schools administer their own examinations. Five subjects are tested: Japanese language, mathematics, social studies, science, and foreign language. The exam in each subject is 50 minutes long, and all are administered on a single day.

Access to Higher Education.  Students who seek admission to national or public institutions of higher learning must take a series of two examinations. The first examination, administered by the National Center for University Entrance Examinations and known as the Center Examination, consists only of multiple-choice questions in six subject areas: mathematics, science, history, language arts, humanities, and foreign language (Moriyoshi & Trelfa, p.14). To be eligible to take the entrance examinations, students must be at least 18 years old and must have completed high school or its equivalent. Students must then take what is known as the "second-stage entrance examinations," which are administered by universities themselves to students who score over a specified threshold on the Center Examination. These examinations typically include multiple choice, short answer, and long essay questions. Students' performance on these two entrance examinations is weighted heavily in university admissions decisions. A small percentage of students are also able to take advantage of the "Recommendation System," which enables them to obtain admission to university through the recommendations of their high school teachers. In all, 32.7% of all high school graduates were admitted to universities or junior colleges in 1992 (Frasz & Kato, p.9).

Teacher Training and Certification  

All teachers of elementary and secondary education must pass prefectural appointment examinations, which comprise written tests in general education and skills tests in physical education, music, and art. Although the first-class certificate is the preferred credential at all levels, some teachers earn a second-class certificate in secondary subjects. As a part of the academic training through which teacher candidates obtain their teaching certificates, all prospective teachers also receive four weeks of practical training for elementary and lower secondary teaching, and two weeks of practical training for upper secondary teaching. In addition, all teachers must go through an interview process when they apply for a teaching job. First-year teachers are required to receive at least 20 days of in-service training as a part of renewal and upgrading requirements.

References  

General Reference  

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (1995). Education at a glance: OECD indicators. Paris: Author.

Husen, T., & Postlethwaite, N. (Eds.) (1994). The international encyclopedia of education (Second edition). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

U.S. Department of Education (1993). Teacher training abroad: New realities. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

References - Japan  

Frasz, C. & Kato, K. (undated). The educational structure of the Japanese school system. Unpublished manuscript.

Moriyoshi, N. & Trelfa, D. (undated). Components of national education standards in Japan. Unpublished manuscript.