Introduction  

Over the past two decades, Australian policy makers and educators have devoted considerable attention to expanding educational opportunity and to devolving (some) authority from the state to the school and classroom levels. These efforts have been rewarded by a vast increase in the percentage of students who complete the full secondary school program.

Because education in Australia falls under the purview of the state or territorial government, the educational systems maintained vary to some extent across states and territories. However, this summary focuses on general information that is true of educational systems across Australia.

Structure of Schooling  

School attendance in Australia is compulsory for children aged 6 through 15 (except in Tasmania, where attendance is compulsory through age 16). Schooling is categorized as either "primary" or "secondary," with secondary education being further divided into lower and upper - or junior and senior - secondary. Regardless of the precise configuration of the system maintained by the state, the complete school program comprises 12 years:

• Primary education comprises the first 6 years of schooling in some states, and the first 7 years in others.
• Lower (junior) secondary begins at the 7th or 8th year (depending upon the state) and continues through the tenth year of schooling. The 7th through 9th years of schooling are called the "preparatory years." At the end of the 9th year (the final year of mandatory schooling in most states), students may elect to leave school or to continue to the 10th year. At the end of the 10th year of schooling (at about age 16), students may leave school with a School Leaving Certificate, in most cases issued by the individual school.
• Upper (senior) secondary comprises the 11th and 12th years of schooling. In lieu of leaving school upon completion of the 10th grade, students may continue for two additional years of schooling, upon completion of which students also receive a School Leaving Certificate, awarded by the school, by an external examining authority, or by both. Formerly attended almost solely by students bound for university study, more and more Australian students, regardless of their intentions for further study, are completing the full 12-year course of study.

Whereas in the past, vocational and academic secondary schools were largely separate institutions, most public secondary schools in Australia today are "comprehensive high schools." These schools provide programs both for university-bound students and for students who will enter the workforce upon leaving school or who will pursue postsecondary technical or vocational training. Some public schools, however, continue to provide only academic, college-preparatory programs for students who are admitted to the selective programs. Other specialized secondary schools provide agricultural or music education.

Virtually all students - approximately 99 percent - in Australia complete the 10th year of schooling, attaining a School Leaving Certificate. The number of students who continue on to the 12th (final) year of schooling is lower, approximately 71 percent of all students nationwide in 1991 (see Footnote 1). These figures have both risen dramatically over the past two decades: in 1976, the figures were 87 percent and 35 percent, respectively. (AEC, 20).

Most children in Australia also attend some form of pre-school program, though attendance is not compulsory. Most states provide a "pre-Year 1" program (called kindergarten year, preparatory year, or transition year), and both governmental and private agencies provide other pre-school activities for the two years prior to the commencement of Year 1.

School Governance and Finance   

Within each Australian state, the educational system is highly centralized. A Minister of Education and a Director-General of Education (reporting to the Minister) are responsible for administering the educational system. In recent years, however, there has been an increasing trend toward devolving many administrative functions from the state level to the local level.

Governance. The department of education in each state or territory retains broad authority over schools throughout the state. The states "are responsible for policies and processes in the areas of school and teacher registration, teacher employment, student enrolment, curriculum content, course accreditation and student assessment. State education departments recruit and appoint the teachers in government schools, supply buildings, equipment and materials, and provide discretionary funding for use by schools" (AECa, p.1). Thus, virtually all major decisions concerning the curriculum, teacher certification and school accreditation, and physical resources are made at the state level.

By longstanding tradition, most states maintain, in addition to the department of education, a separate board responsible for examination and certification. The board is responsible for approving syllabuses and conducting the school exit exams that students sit for at the end of the 12th year of schooling.

In some states, authority is increasingly being devolved to the school level. For instance, school-level responsibilities include course planning, curriculum organization, decisions about classroom practice and the amount of time allocated to different subject areas, the range of subjects offered, and specific issues related to school culture

Finance. As reflected in the centralized nature of educational governance, Australian state governments provide the majority of funding for public education. The Commonwealth government also contributes considerable funding for education through transfer payments to the states. In 1992, approximately 71 percent of all funding for primary and secondary education in Australia came from state sources, nearly 29 percent from the Commonwealth, and less than 1 percent from local sources (OECD, 117).

Curriculum  

"Syllabus Committees" are appointed by state education authorities to recommend curricula; separate committees exist for primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary levels. Traditionally, the curricula recommendations have been quite rigid in some states, but in recent years, the syllabi, especially at the primary level, have established broad curriculum goals but have devolved to the individual teacher responsibility for deciding how and when those goals will be met.

Curriculum for primary school students focuses on English (reading, spelling, speech, composition, handwriting), mathematics, social studies, natural sciences, arts and crafts, music, and health and physical education; religious instruction may also be provided. Though content coverage and instructional hours were once highly prescribed by central authorities, teachers are increasingly allowed to work from more flexible guidelines, choosing the amount of time to devote to different subjects and the instructional strategies they wish to use.

Curriculum for secondary school students is divided into the lower secondary and upper secondary. During the lower secondary years (years 7 - or in some states 8 - through 10) focus on a standard core curriculum of English, mathematics, science, and social studies. Students also choose courses from a selection of electives, and vocational education courses provide training for students who do not intend to continue to tertiary education. The curriculum at the upper secondary level is principally academic in nature, though over the past decade or so, education authorities have worked to broaden the curriculum so that it has more relevance for students who will not continue to university.

Standards for Student Performance and Gateways to Promotion and Higher Education  

Traditionally, educational standards are established and maintained at the state or territory level. However, the Commonwealth government has been playing a more active role in recent years by encouraging national collaboration on priority curriculum and assessment issues. In 1989, the education ministers of all states and territories agreed to 10 national goals for schooling, and the state governments and the Commonwealth are collaborating to develop a set of national curriculum and assessment frameworks; eight "key learning areas" have been adopted nationally: English, mathematics, science, technology, languages other than English, the arts, health and physical education, and studies of society and the environment.

Promotion. At the primary school level, promotion is typically automatic, unless a child has a severe educational or emotional disability. No formal examination is required upon leaving primary school and advancing to secondary school. Promotion at the secondary level is also based upon teacher recommendations, and the decision to persist through the complete 12-year program rests, at least officially, with the student.

Examinations. Assessment at the primary level is continuous and conducted by the student's teacher; as stated above, no formal examination marks the end of primary education. In most states, earning a School Leaving Certificate at the end of the 10th year of schooling also requires no formal examination. The certification (unlike most 12th Year Certificates) is granted by the individual school.

Until the recent past, the sole focus of the last two years of secondary education was the exit examinations, "external state examinations administered by a public examining board or authority, or internally administered examinations and the Australian Scholastic Aptitude Test, a nationally standardized external examination" (Aldrich-Langen, 1983, p.19). In recent years, however, most states, though they continue to administer exit examinations, have begun to place more emphasis upon students' cumulative upper secondary school records among the criteria for the Year 12 Certificate (Aldrich-Langen, 1990, p.1). Because of the increasing importance of students' performance throughout upper secondary school (and not just on a single culminating examination), states have devoted resources to "grade moderation," striving to reduce discrepancies in teachers' evaluations of student performance. (Grade moderation has always been conducted by Australian states, but it has assumed greater importance as exit examinations have become less important.)

Access to Higher Education. Requirements for matriculation at a university or other institution of higher learning vary across states. In some states the external state examination students sit for at the end of the 12th year is synonymous with the university entrance examination. In other states, a greater emphasis is placed on students' upper secondary course work and marks: a composite tertiary entrance score is calculated based upon students' marks in various courses. Although they maintain different systems for determining university eligibility, Australian states and territories recognize the requirements across states; that is, if a student has been declared eligible for university matriculation in one state, all other states will deem him or her eligible for matriculation as well.

Teacher Training and Certification  

Teacher education courses in Australia vary in length and in the type of certification awarded. Currently, several options are available to prospective teachers, including: (1) a three-year Diploma of Teaching; (2) a four-year Bachelor of Education; (3) a four-year integrated Bachelor and Diploma of Education; and (4) a three-year (or other length) degree combined with a Diploma of Education.

Most institutions of higher education are now offering, or intend to offer in the near future, a four-year Bachelor of Education courses as the minimum qualification for prospective teachers. This shift is occurring in response to recent reports that have suggested that a four-year course, as opposed to a three-year course, is necessary to provide prospective teachers with adequate preparation, to attract more able students, and to improve the status of teaching among other professions.

References  

General Reference

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1995). Education at a glance: OECD indicators. Paris: Author.

Husen, T., & Postlethwaite, N. (Eds.) (1994). The international encyclopedia of education (Second edition). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

U.S. Department of Education (1993). Teacher training abroad: New realities. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

References -- Australia

Aldrich-Langen, C. (1983). Australia: A study of the educational system of Australia and a guide to the academic placement of students in educational institutions of the United States. Washington: American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers.

Aldrich-Langen, C. (1990). The educational system of Australia: An update of the 1983 World Education Series volume. Washington: American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers.

Australian Education Council (1992a). National Report on Schooling in Australia, 1991. Carlton: Curriculum Corporation.

Australian Education Council (1992b). Statistical Annex: National Report on Schooling in Australia, 1991. Carlton: Curriculum Corporation.