examples:
Elements in this section are arranged alphabetically.
Abbreviations are a short form of a word or phrase used primarily to save space. They occur most frequently in technical writing, statistical matters, tables, and notes.
Acronyms, like abbreviations, are typed in all capitals and without periods. Acronyms are letters that are pronounced like words.
See Government Printing Office Style Manual, chapter 9, for rules and extensive examples.
Spell out the phrase to be abbreviated and follow it with the abbreviation in parentheses. Thereafter, use the abbreviation, eliminating the article in front of the abbreviation where possible.
examples:
In long works, repeat full phrase (without abbreviation) at the beginning of major sections of text and the appendix.
See appendix A for a list of abbreviations used in OERI products.
When you use an acronym ending in "s" as a modifier, it is not necessarily a possessive form, so the apostrophe may be omitted.
example:
If you must precede an acronym with an article, use the one that works with the acronym, not the one required by the written-out term.
examples:
Spell out the first use of fiscal year in text (note lowercase). From then on, use the shortened version.
example:
Abbreviate in tables only two outlying areas:
Spell out the others:
American Samoa
Guam
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
Make acronyms plural by adding "s" alone.
example:
Use post office abbreviations for states in addresses. Omit punctuation for NW and its counterparts.
Use full state names in text and in table stubs.
Spell out United States used as a noun; abbreviate it when using it as an adjective.
example:
Note spelling of the word acknowledgments: no "e" follows the "g."
Keep acknowledgments short and restrict them to persons who made a concrete contribution to the publication.
Include peer reviewers and their affiliations unless they have requested their names not be used. Do not attribute the work of individual OERI personnel in the body of an OERI report.
Omit formal titles (e.g., Mrs., Ms., Dr.).
Capitalization gives distinction, importance, and emphasis only to words when and where it is warranted. In full or short English titles of periodicals, series of publications, annual reports, historic documents, and works of art, the first word and all important words are capitalized.
Some languages follow different capitalization rules; for example, in Spanish, the only word that is capitalized is the first.
See Government Printing Office Style Manual, chapter 3, for rules and extensive examples.
Lowercase and spell out "figure," "chapter," "table," and "appendix" in text.
For capitalization in figure and table titles, see Figures or Tables.
| Capitalize | Do not capitalize |
| Washington State | state of Washington |
| United States of America | the nation, a nation, national, federal government, federally |
| the East | east coast |
| Western Hemisphere | western United States, western Pennsylvania |
Use chapter headings and subheads in text and contents as specified below.
Capitalize the first letter of the first word and of most words. The exceptions include: articles a, an, and the; the prepositions at, by, for, in, of, on, to, and up; the conjunctions and, as, but, if, or, and nor; and the second element of a compound numeral (example: Twenty-third), which are not capitalized.
Center all chapter and first-level headings; flush left all second-level subheads; and indent third-level subheads a few spaces or run them in the beginning of a paragraph. A third-level subhead that begins a paragraph should end with a period — no period follows if typed on a line by itself. (See examples below.)
When submitting a manuscript to MIS for typesetting, indicate chapter headings and subheads by writing circled letters or numeral designations (A, B, C or 1, 2, 3) in the margin of the manuscript. In the case of electronically generated manuscripts, include generic codes to indicate the various levels.
examples:
Individual Differences and the U.S. Education System
Level A or 1 (centered, bold):
Field Research and the Topic of Investigation
Level B or 2 (flush left, bold):
Reactions to the Tracking System
Level C or 3 (by itself — flush left, italic, bold; or beginning of a paragraph — italic, bold):
Computers and Individualized Instruction in Elementary Schools
Technological advances are changing the ways schools deal with individual differences.
or
Computers and individualized instruction in elementary schools. Technological advances are changing the ways schools deal with individual differences.
Compound words are sometimes written as solid words, separate words, or hyphenated words. Use an up-to-date dictionary to identify words that are now written as solid or separate words.
See Government Printing Office Style Manual, chapters 6 and 7, for rules and examples.
Use restraint in forming hyphenated compounds of words used in normal sequence. For example, do not hyphenate "per capita expenditure," "per pupil expenditures," "high school students," "elementary school grade." (For use of hyphens, see Punctuation-Hyphens.)
Close prefixes and suffixes to words, except where the base word is capitalized (non-Hispanic) or ambiguity is possible (preposition, resort or pre-position, resort).
| Make one word | |
| a compound beginning with | Make one word or one ending with |
| co | like |
| de | maker |
| extra | making |
| in | over |
| inter | person |
| intra | wide |
| multi | wise |
| non | work |
| post | |
| pre | |
| re | |
| under | |
Except after the short prefixes co, de, pre, pro, and re, which are generally printed solid, a hyphen is used to avoid doubling a vowel or tripling a consonant (micro-organism, semi-independent, but cooperative).
Use a hyphen to combine words to form a unit modifier immediately preceding the word modified. But omit the hyphen in a compound predicate adjective.
examples:
but
The effects were far reaching. He is high strung. She is well qualified. She is a highly paid employee.
Omit a hyphen in a two-word modifier, the first word of which is a comparative or superlative.
examples:
Omit a hyphen in a two-word modifier the first word of which is an adverb ending in "ly."
examples:
| afterschool (u.m.) | mid-1990s |
| at-risk students | multistep |
| chalkboard | nongovernment |
| child care | nonresponse |
| cutoff | ongoing |
| database | online |
| day-to-day (u.m.) | out-of-school (u.m.) |
| day care | part-time (u.m.) |
| extracurricular | policymaker |
| first-grade students | policymaking |
| first-grader | postsecondary |
| first-time (u.m.) | preschool |
| follow up (noun) | problem-solving (u.m.) |
| follow-up (u.m.) | school-based (u.m.) |
| free-for-all | socioeconomic |
| full-time (u.m.) | state-of-the-art |
| homemaking | teenage |
| homework | textbook |
| in-depth (u.m.) | white-collar |
| inservice (u.m.) | woodworking |
| low-income (u.m.) | workplace |
| u.m.=unit modifier | |
Manuscripts developed by OERI are works for hire and therefore the property of the U.S. government. If they are to be printed, Title 44 of the U.S. Code stipulates that the government must be the publisher. This ensures that public information is in the public domain, in this case through Federal Depository Libraries. You must see that printing is done through the U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO). (These restrictions do not apply to certain categories of internal or administrative printing, where distribution and numbers printed are limited.) A minimum of 100 copies meets this requirement. Once the government printing requirement is satisfied, the OERI contractor may print additional copies. However, the printing must be done with nongovernmental funds. In addition, the contractor must remove the OERI name and government mailing indicia. At this point, graphics may be changed and the document may be sold by the contractor or, indeed, by anyone, since the information is now in the public domain.
The Office of Media and Information Services strongly urges project officers to provide contractors with copies of the Guide to help ensure that they meet OERI's publishing requirements. Copyrights
Any manuscripts written by U.S. government employees as part of their official duties are in the public domain and are not covered by the copyright law. Manuscripts written by contractors or grantees supported by U.S. government funds can be copyrighted with written permission from the government, provided the government's rights to use the material are protected.
OERI authors must obtain written permission from a copyright holder to use any copyrighted material in OERI publications, videos, CD-ROMs, or Web postings. You must secure this written permission before submitting the manuscript to MIS, and you must submit a copy of the permission letter with the manuscript for transmission to GPO. Also note this permission in the manuscript, either as a footnote to the text or as a source note to the table. Sometimes the copyright holder specifies the form of reference; if not, use the following form:
National Education Association, Status of American Public School Teachers, 1983. (Copyright 1983: used with the permission of the National Education Association.)
In addition, every OERI publication must carry a notice pertaining to the copyright law if that publication contains copyrighted material. Use the following notice on the Back-of-Title Page of each such publication.
The [program office name] has obtained permission from the copyright holders to reproduce certain quoted material in this report. Further reproduction of this material is prohibited without specific permission of the copyright holders. All other material contained in the report is in the public domain and may be used and reprinted without special permission; citation as to source, however, is expected.
| Tip box You must submit a copy of any permission letter with the manuscript for transmission to GPO. |
Cross-references guide the reader to related information and should not be used unless they are clear and informative.
Cite all appendices, figures, tables, footnotes, and references consecutively in text.
Check to see that tables and figures show what the text says they show. Recheck data that cannot be verified in the report.
Lowercase "table," "figure," "chapter," and "appendix" when referring to them in the text, unless they begin a sentence. You may enclose the reference in parentheses at the end of the sentence in which it is first mentioned.
example:
You may also refer to a table after the first mention of its data when it does not apply to the rest of the sentence.
example:
When referring to another part of your report, refer to it by section title instead of by page number.
Make sure all technical terms are clearly defined in the appendix, technical notes, glossary, or a footnote-endnote. Do this for terms used in tables as well as text.
Alphabetize the terms in the definitions section.
On the rare occasion that an errata sheet is required, the program office responsible for the publication will prepare the errata sheet and submit it through the same clearance process as the original publication. MIS will distribute copies to recipients of the publication.
The program office should not withdraw and reprint any publication. Instead, it should insert the errata sheet in all of its copies until stock is exhausted.
If GPO sells the publication, MIS will notify GPO to discontinue sales temporarily until MIS forwards enough copies of the errata sheet to be inserted in GPO's current sales stock. MIS also will revise the original camera copy art and submit it to GPO for reprinting when and if their sales stock is depleted and a reprint is called for. However, if the printing job is so poor it seriously detracts from a publication's quality, MIS will seek a reprint at the printer's expense. Should that effort fail, MIS will apply for a discount on the original printing.
Use the term "figure," not "chart," except in The Condition of Education, where using "chart" is traditional.
In titles, capitalize only the first word, proper nouns, and the word following a colon.
Extend the scale at least one increment above the highest values shown (e.g., if highest value is 143, upper limit should be at least 150). If space allows, percentage figures should show 0 to 100 percent. Be consistent so that data within a report are presented to the same scale.
To shorten the scale, use a scale break. Always show zero.
If possible, place labels within line graphs and align them one under another. If this is not possible, align them outside the graph next to the appropriate lines. Use a key, or legend, as a last resort. Avoid using more than four lines per graph.
Make text in legends horizontal. Capitalize as you would titles (see above). Box legends if boxing will help the reader.
On the horizontal (x) axis, if labels abut or overlap, remove every other one, when possible, and lengthen the tick marks for the labels left.
example:
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1997. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, 1982—97.
Place tick marks outside the axis if your computer graphics program allows.
On line graphs, avoid geometric figures used on the lines to distinguish them from one another. Instead, use lines that are dotted, dashed, or of various thicknesses. Lines should be distinctive, even if they are printed in multiple colors or shades.
Place labels outside wedges. Avoid using more than five wedges. If you need more than five, consider another approach. Do not draw an arrow from label to wedge unless the wedge arc is smaller than the type height. Each wedge should be distinctive (e.g., striped, hatch marked, solid) even if printed in colors or shades.
If a bar chart includes a key or other reference, the items identified in the key should be in the same horizontal or vertical order as the bars.
example:
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) "Completions" survey, 1996—97.
Notes serve two functions: (1) to provide comments on the main text, and (2) to serve as bibliographic references. When the information appears at the bottom of the page, notes are called footnotes; when notes appear all together at the end of the complete report they are called endnotes; and when they appear parenthetically within the main text, they are referred to as text notes. Endnotes and text notes are preferred when the number or size of notes makes footnote placement difficult.
See Government Printing Office Style Manual, chapters 15 and 16, for rules and extensive examples.
Use footnotes sparingly and then only include material incidental to the discussion for example, a source reference, a definition, or an explanation of some anomaly in the data collection.
Keep them short — no longer than three lines, if possible.
Check closely to see if all the footnotes are necessary. Some may be integrated in the text. Those explaining the methodology of a survey may be redundant to material in the methodology section of the text.
Consolidate footnotes containing definitions and make them a separate appendix.
When a publication contains many footnotes, consolidate them as a separate section titled "Notes" at the end of the text. These endnotes are recommended as alternatives to footnotes in most publications of more than ten pages.
Place footnotes at the bottom of the page in which the reference appears.
Place endnotes at the end of the body of the book, or at the end of a chapter (see Numbering Style).
Place footnote and endnote numerals after the punctuation in a sentence.
example:
In text use Arabic numerals for footnotes and number them consecutively. Leave no space between the numeral and the word to which it is attached, either in text. At the bottom of the page (or table) where the footnote itself is printed there is often one space between the number and the first letter of the footnote.
In a long manuscript with many footnotes, begin numbering them in each new chapter with footnote, and place endnotes at the end of each chapter or at the end of the body, labeled by chapter.
If the entire report contains only one footnote, use an asterisk (*).
Separate two or more superscripts to the same word with commas, (e.g.,). If you have more than two consecutive superscripts, use a hyphen (e.g.,).
Below are examples of basic footnote styles.
book: Hapswitch Wilson, Punishment As an Educational Tool (Montreal:Albemarle Leafnotes, 1997), 234.
journal: Robert E. Slavin, "Cooperative Learning," Review of Educational Research 50 (2) (Summer 1997): 3342.
NOTE: For other methods of documenting references, and more examples, see References. For footnotes in tables, see Tables.
See Compound Words and Punctuation (Dashes and Hyphens). Internet Terminology
This section addresses the need for maintaining consistency in usage of the developing and ever-changing language of Internet terminology. The purpose of this section is to establish and clarify rules for such language as it appears in OERI products. Because current style manuals lack established rules, OERI authors should refer to this section when using Internet terminology.
The Internet is a collection of computer networks that connects millions of computers around the world. It contains a vast source of information that is constantly changing and expanding. Since its creation, the Internet has grown and is now used by millions of people.
The World Wide Web (the Web or WWW) provides a graphical, easy-to-navigate way of looking at documents on the Internet. You can think of the Web as a big library on the Internet. Web "sites" are like books, and Web "pages" are like specific pages in the books. A collection of Web pages is known as a Web site.
A "home page" is the starting point for a Web site. It's something like a book cover or table of contents. It is the first page of information received by a visitor.
Each Web page, including the Web site's home page, has a unique address called a Universal Resource Locator (URL). URLs are case sensitive and should be written in caps and lower case.
The word Internet is always capitalized.
World Wide Web may be abbreviated WWW in text, and can be used interchangeably with Internet.
Web site and Web page are always spelled as two words. The word "Web" is always capitalized and the word "site" or "page" is always lowercase, except when it is used as part of a title.
examples:
the U.S. Department of Education Web Page
educational Web page
Home page is also two words and is only capitalized if it is used in part of a title.
examples:
E-mail always contains a hyphen. Avoid the use of "Internet address" when referring to an e-mail address, which is a precise term. E-mail addresses are not case-sensitive; the recommended use is lowercase.
examples:
CD-ROM (compact disc-read only memory)--the compact disc is always spelled with the letter "c," whereas floppy disk and zip disk are always spelled with the letter "k."
All Web sites, URLs and e-mail addresses listed in OERI publications should be highlighted if necessary for clarity.
examples:
Whenever possible, refrain from using a period after an e-mail or URL address when it appears in text at the end of a sentence.
examples:
not
The chart can be viewed at http://www.ed.gov/people.html.
Please contact us via e-mail at blue.ribbon@ed.gov.
In announcements the address should read: This product and other OERI products are available via the Internet (http://www.ed.gov/pubs/).
For NCES publications: http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch
| Tip box Web "sites" are like books, and Web "pages" are like specific pages in the books. A collection of Web pages is known as a Web site. |
In general, lists are used for emphasis when discussing key points within a publication. For the most part, each list will follow the same rules of punctuation that would apply in a sentence, except that semicolons rather than commas often are used to separate items.
Do not number items in lists unless those numbers are referred to later in the text or are present to establish a sequence. If used, however, numbers in lists should be followed by a period and a space.
example:
In most cases, use bullets in lists, following the rules of punctuation for a sentence.
Bulleted lists are used to organize thoughts, to give the eye a break, and to highlight salient points. example:
In a publication that includes multiple-choice test questions, listed items are numbered or lettered, fragments are not punctuated, and sentences include periods.
example:
Note that certain other rules apply, as follows:
Numbers are covered in detail in the Government Printing Office Style Manual, chapter 12, which includes rules and examples on the treatment of numbers in text. Generally, use the following as a guide:
examples:
Spell out numbers less than 10. Use Arabic numbers for all numerals in a series in which any of the numbers is 10 or greater, except for ordinal numbers.
examples:
Write out numbers and years beginning sentences, or recast the sentence.
examples:
Write out "million" and "billion," but keep the number.
examples:
Write out abbreviated decade references, such as the nineties (not the '90s or the 90's); do not use an apostrophe in the 1990s.
examples:
Rounding is covered in detail in Guidelines for Tabular Presentations (a copy is available from NCES Chief Statistician upon request). Generally, use the following as a guide.
In general, round percentages to no more than one decimal place; fine differences may require a finer breakdown. Also see section on table style.
examples:
Lists of percentages rounded to whole numbers should be qualified. Whole number percentages as whole numbers with a zero following the decimal point.
examples:
Round four- and five-digit numbers to hundreds.
examples:
Round six-digit numbers to thousands.
example:
Round millions and billions to one decimal place.
examples:
Round percentages to one decimal place.
example:
Round six-digit numbers, and over, to thousands.
example:
Round percentages to no more than two decimal places, except in certain methodological tables, where other breakdowns may be necessary.
examples:
NOTE: Do not round other numbers
Punctuation is used to provide clarity and smooth transition in printed reports. See Government Printing Office Style Manual, chapter 8, for rules and examples on the treatment of punctuation in text.
In electronic addresses on the Internet, list the entire address on a single line, if possible. Break after slashes and punctuation; never break addresses at hyphens; and never introduce hyphens into addresses. Refrain from using periods at the end of Internet and e-mail addresses. Highlight addresses when necessary for clarity. Also see Internet Terminology.
examples:
In postal addresses, omit the comma preceding NW and its counterparts. Note that these directionals take no punctuation, nor do postal abbreviations of states. Use en-dashes in zip codes, as well as phone numbers.
examples:
Omit the apostrophe in plurals for dates (1990s) or abbreviations (ABCs), except when it adds clarity (A's and B's). Write out references to the eighties; do not use the 80s or the 80's.
Use a final (serial) comma preceding "and" in a series.
example:
See also Quotation Marks for comma placement.
There are several types of dashes, differing in length and each with its own uses.
Em-dash
In printed publications, an em-dash (—) is used in place of two hyphens (--), but with no spaces between words, to provide a pause in the copy. In some cases, an em-dash should be used to replace a parenthetical statement. Do not use em-dashes where commas will suffice. Em-dashes are available in most word processing software.
example:
En-dash
An en-dash (–) is used in place of "through" in dates, ages, and times, but should only be used in the shorthand form, as shown below. En-dashes are available in most word processing software.
example:
En-dashes are also used in zip codes and phone numbers.
examples:
Hyphens
The most frequent use of hyphens is to connect elements of compound words, particularly if those words are used as unit modifiers (u.m.).
examples:
Hyphens are also needed for compound words when one or both words cannot stand alone. Do not hyphenate elementary level, secondary level, or school level.
See Compound Words for use of hyphens to form compounds.
Set commas and final periods inside quotation marks; set other punctuation marks out side quotation marks.
examples:
While it may be tempting to use "quotation marks" as a form of "emphasis," "over use" can be "very" distracting to the reader. Placement of special emphasis—used sparingly—can be accomplished using em-dashes or italicized words. Words should not be underlined, made all caps, or bold faced in text. In headlines, bold facing is encouraged, but all caps or underlining are not used.
Use the slash (or solidus) as a substitute for "per" and in fractions or to indicate alternatives/alternative word forms.
example:
Avoid using "and/or." Use either "and" or "or," or recast the sentence.
examples:
In October 1997, the Office of Management and Budget issued new standards specifying the minimum racial and ethnic designations all U.S. agencies must use when collecting and presenting data. (NCES has incorporated these designations into its standards.) The principal changes are: the ability to report more than one race; and the split of the category "Asian or Pacific Islanders" into two categories, "Asian" and "Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islanders." The new standards will be used by the Bureau of Census in the 2000 decennial census, while all federal agencies should adopt the standards as soon as possible, but no later than January 1, 2003. NCES is implementing the changes as appropriate for the timing of individual surveys. So the implementation process will be gradual.
As NCES adopts the new classifications in its surveys, the publications derived from those surveys will note that the new categories are being used.
In the interim, publications using the old categories should continue to follow the following conventions:
The terms "nonwhite" and "color" are not acceptable as racial/ethnic designations presented in OERI data. Instead, use "black and other races" and "all other races" as collective descriptions of minority races when you must make the most summary distinction between the majority and minority races.
Use "white," "black," and "all other races" when distinguishing between the majority race, the principal minority race, and other races.
Include the variable race in the title and stubhead or boxhead of tables. At a minimum, designate a total as "all races" or "total" and the categories "white" and "black." Acceptable alternatives follow. These examples are meant to be illustrative rather than restrictive. For example, footnote on "All other" may or may not be used.
examples:
NOTE: The racial designations "white" and "black" are not proper nouns, so do not capitalize them, except in normal use (e.g., beginning of a sentence).
Statistical data collections that include a question on race may also include a question to determine, at a minimum, whether an individual is of Hispanic origin.
The minimum details on ethnic background you must present in tables include "total," "Hispanic," and "non-Hispanic." Organize more detailed groups in such a way that they can be aggregated into either Hispanic or non-Hispanic.
When only showing Hispanic origin, call the variable "Hispanic" and mention it in the stubhead and table titles.
As a measure of the two chief minorities in the United States, "Hispanics" are often included with data on "blacks" and "whites." In this usage, add a note stating that Hispanics may be of any race, alerting the reader to potential overlap in the data.
Less frequently, you might need to break these categories into a different racial/ethnic set, that is "white, Hispanic," "white, non-Hispanic," "black, Hispanic," and "black, non-Hispanic."
examples:
When showing additional origins (for example, English, German, and French) use "Ethnic origin" and include it in the table and its title.
example:
Properly document all papers, reports, and other works to be published through MIS with notes and references.
You may choose one of two styles of documentation for notes and the appropriate companion bibliographic style. The two styles are: "Author-Date" (commonly referred to as APA style) and "Full Reference" (the longer, more traditional style, commonly associated with footnotes or endnotes).
You need not follow the punctuation and placement of items recommended here. However, whichever punctuation and placement you choose, use them consistently throughout your references.
With some variations, the following standards for referencing material are taken from The Chicago Manual of Style, chapter 16.
In Text
Place authors' names and publication dates in the text, in parentheses, and no punctuation is used between them. Key them to a list of works cited at the end of the book or article.
examples:
with page reference—(Duncan 1997, 74)
more than one author—(Duncan and Phyfe 1997)
| Tip box Whichever punctuation and placement you choose, use them consistently throughout your references.
more than three authors—(Duncan et al. 1997) |
When you use the author-date method, arrange references in one alphabetical list (according to author's last name).
examples:
This reference system involves using footnotes and a bibliography. The information in both would be identical, so using a bibliography is necessary only if you use sources not cited in the text. However, such a composite list can help a reader locate the source quickly.
Below are examples of full references used in this method.
Footnotes — government sources method
journal — U.S. Department of Education, A. Stafford Metz, "Bachelor's Degrees in the Marketplace," American Education 17 (7) (August/September 1997): 2730. [Volume is 17; number is 7.]
journal (by two authors) — U.S. Department of Education, Nancy B. Dearman and Valena White Plisko, "Test Scores and Attainment Rates," American Education 17 (7) (August/September 1997): 1520.
series — U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, "Population Profile of the United States, 1997," Current Population Reports, Series P20, no. 363, (Washington, DC: 1997), 11.
unpublished material — Renault P. Truegrin, "Why Kids Stay in School" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, Los Angeles, April 12, 1997).
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond study, unpublished tabulations, October 1997.
report being prepared — U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1997, (Washington, DC), forthcoming.
repeated footnote [repeated several footnotes later]American Education, "Marketplace," 29.
repeated footnote [repeated in next footnote]Ibid., 38.
Footnotes — nongovernment sources method
book — Hapswitch Wilson, Punishment As an Educational Tool — (Montreal: Albemarle Leafnotes, 1997), 234.
book (by editor, compiler, or translator) — Hapswitch Wilson, ed., Discipline and Schooling (Montreal: Albemarle Leafnotes, 1997), 132.
John Dewey, Essays and Papers, ed. R.P. Truegrin and Hapswitch Wilson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), 216.
edition — Hapswitch Wilson, Punishment As an Educational Tool, 2nd ed. (Montreal: Albemarle Leafnotes, 1997), 171.
part of book — Renault P. Truegrin, "Freedom in the Classroom," in Thinkers in Education, ed. Harvey L. Rentwhistle and Hapswitch Wilson (Montreal: Albemarle Leafnotes, 1997): 145.
unpublished materialRichard W. Rumberger, "Why Kids Drop Out of School" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, 12 April 1997), 3.
Hapswitch Wilson, "Duty and Education in High School." (Ph.D. dissertation, Albemarle University, 1997), 21–23.
informal material — American Council for Education: Personal communication with the author. Washington, DC, May 19, 1997.
repeated footnote [repeated several footnotes later] — Slavin, "Cooperative Learning," 37.
repeated footnote [repeated in next footnote] — Ibid., 38.
Information in bibliographic items is identical to that in footnotes (for full-reference items), with three variations:
examples:
bibliography — Wilson, Hapswitch. Punishment As an Educational Tool. Montreal: Albemarle Leafnotes, 1997.
Here are some other examples of full-reference bibliographic items.
book (author is also publisher) — U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Digest of Education Statistics, 1997. Washington, DC: 1997.
book (by editor, compiler, or translator) — Wilson, Hapswitch, ed. Discipline and Schooling. Montreal: Albemarle Leafnotes, 1997.
Dewey, John. Essays and Papers. Ed. Renault P. Truegrin and Hapswitch Wilson. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997.
edition — Wilson, Hapswitch. Punishment As an Educational Tool. 2nd ed. Montreal: Albemarle Leafnotes, 1997.
part of book — Truegrin, Renault P. "Freedom in the Classroom," in Thinkers in Education. Ed. Harvey L. Rentwhistle and Hapswitch Wilson. Montreal: Albemarle Leafnotes, 1997.
journal — Slavin, Robert E. "Cooperative Learning." Review of Educational Research 50 (2) (Summer 1997): 33–42.
Capitalize the title of major surveys, but do not put quotes around them. When citing the major survey and one of its subsurveys, capitalize both, but only put quotes around the subsurvey. In source notes for tables and figures, always cite the major survey first.
examples:
Unpublished material, when quoted, should be labeled as such, including a description of where and when the material was generated.
example:
A good deal of material can fit into a compact space when you present it in the form of a table. Tables should be used to help the reader locate specific information faster than if the same information were presented in the text.
An OERI report may contain as many as three different types of tables. Listed below are examples of the different tables.
Summary tables — Summary tables present detailed, selected data and require titles (including table numbers if you use more than one such table). You can disperse summary tables through the text or batch them after the text before the appendix.
Reference tablesReference tables are the most detailed tables containing actual survey data. They normally form a separate section at the end of the text or in the appendix. When you integrate data with standard errors in these tables, place them in the appendix.
Methodological tablesMethodological tables contain standard errors or confidence intervals for data in a report. Place these tables in the appendix.
(To learn the level of precision required in each type of table, see the section on Rounding.)
A report may include all types of tables. But be careful not to choose them all if they present the same data. Such practice is not only redundant, but also costs extra review and production time and extra expense.
If instead of summary tables you choose to present reference tables, you may place them where you normally would place summary tables.
If a table comprises more than two pages, avoid integrating it with the text.
When you disperse tables throughout the text, refer to each of them in your narrative. Refer to tables sequentially. You need not refer to appendix tables.
Do not mix different measurements of data (e.g., percentages and amounts) in the same column. Try to rearrange the table so that percentages fall in one column, amounts in another, percentage changes in a third, and so on. Keeping such data discrete makes them easier to use.
In tables displaying dollar amounts over time, indicate if the amounts are constant dollars.
Give the base year. "In constant 1997 dollars," not "adjusted for inflation."
Place dollar signs only in the first row.
In percentage tables with values under 1, place a zero before the decimal only in the first row of data. Some software programs put the zero in every row.
If rows and columns do not add to the totals presented, add as a general note, if it applies.
examples:
With percentages:
NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.
Fill data cells
In tables, fill empty data cells or data elements with symbols and footnote them. Do not use NA or NR.
Recommended symbols
| — | too few cases for reliable estimate |
| * | statistical significance |
| ? | not applicable, not available |
| # | not reported |
| ! | interpret with caution | ?? | less than 0.5 percent |
When you use # or any other characters to occupy empty data cells, place them in parentheses and right-justify.
(For other questions on footnotes in tables, see Tables.)
In formulas, use a lowercase for the times sign.
Include U.S. Service Schools in NCES postsecondary education table stubs. If this data element is omitted, a footnote is required.
Outlying Areas
If you use data from the outlying areas in tables, do not include them in totals for the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Insert a line below the last state's entries to separate state and area data. Lowercase "areas" and list all six areas, whether or not you received data from all six. (See Abbreviations for approved abbreviations of outlying areas.)
Use numeral 1 for the number 1, not a lowercase letter l, regardless of the program you use.
Use tabs or indents to set columns, not the space bar.
Use no automatic headers, footers, or page numbering, no underlines, and no other special formatting commands.
The following is a quick reference guide to table style. Most statistical tables can be formatted using this guide. For a more detailed discussion on table formatting, contact the Office of the Chief Statistician, NCES.
NOTE: Most of the style conventions used in the tables section are from Guidelines for Tabular Presentation, revisions forthcoming 1999. The guide was developed from Bureau of Census and U.S. Government Printing Office standards still in use. The standards have been modified slightly to reflect new needs and changes in the technical capabilities of present-day computers and typesetters.
Table 1. — Extend the first line the full width of the table and begin second and subsequent lines under first word of the title. End without a period
See footnotes at end of table. (Include this statement as a cross-reference when you have multipage tables with footnotes. Place a full-width bottom line only at the table's end to separate the table from the footnotes, but only on the last page.)
NOTE: Authors may center stub and column heads if they wish. Computer programs better accommodate using them flush right or left, but doing so is not required. Whichever approach you use, use it consistently throughout your manuscript.
Table 1. — Repeat title on second and continuing table pages. Indicate table is continued with an em-dash and the capitalized word — Continued
[Body of table goes here]
(Center general qualifier here [e.g., Amounts in thousands])
Center spanner |
||||
Flush stub |
Flush |
Center spanner |
||
Flush |
Flush column |
Flush column |
||
| Center spanner over field of table | ||||
| Grand total 2 | $145,000 | $69,000 | $43,000 | $33,000 |
| Major group 3 | 43,000 | 21,000 | 10,000 | 12,000 |
| Minor group 4 | 13,000 | 8,000 | (5) | 5,000 |
| Minor group | 10,000 | 3,000 | 4,000 | 63,000 |
| Minor group | 11,000 | (*) | 2,000 | 9,000 |
| Minor group . . . 7 | 48,000 | 30,000 | 18,000 | 80 |
(Center general qualifier here [e.g., Amounts in thousands])
Center spanner |
||||
Flush stub |
Flush |
Center spanner |
||
Flush |
Flush column |
Flush column |
||
| Center spanner over field of table | ||||
| Minor group | 9,000 | 2,000 | 3,000 | 4,000 |
| Minor group | 11,000 | 5,000 | 6,000 | — |
? This symbol means not applicable or not available. Do not use NA or NR1 for "not" applicable" or "not reported." Symboled footnotes precede numbered ones at the bottom of a table. Bring all lines of a footnote flush left.
* Do not use numbered footnotes if you only have one. Use an asterisk.
Capitalize only the first word, proper nouns, and the word following the colon. Place a comma before major qualifiers beginning with "by." Qualifiers of items in columns go before those items in the stub. Place the data year, when available, after the colon. Avoid footnoting a title (use a general note instead).
1Place grand totals at the top. Indent three spaces if you have only one more level; indent five spaces if you have two or more additional levels.
2Begin major group or subtotal at left margin. Indent continuation lines three spaces.
3Indent third level groups two spaces, the next group four spaces, and so on.
4Leave no table cells blank. Footnote them and place footnote in parentheses (except a dash) flush right.
5In the field of a table, place footnotes to the left of a number; in the heads and stub, place them to the right.
6Use leaders (a line of periods) only when a wide space divides the stub and column one.
7To place zero in a cell, the measure must actually be zero. If your computer software permits, express zero as 0, not 0.0, whether it is in a number or a percent column.
NOTE: General notes follow footnotes and precede source note. Bring flush left all continuation lines for notes and sources.
SOURCE: Agency name, bureau name, major survey title (or publication title), subsurvey title (in quotes), year of survey or publication. For unpublished data, use the month and year of the tabulation or tape file. For up to three years, use each year.
8For more than three continuous years, use the year span. For more than three noncontinuous years, use "selected years" and the year span. Use a semicolon to separate several sources from the same agency. Use a period to separate agencies.
See Survey Title; Tables; or Figures.
Correct usage can enhance the readability, credibility, and clarity of OERI products. Some examples follow:
In general, when two persons or things are involved, it is between them. When more than two are involved, it is among them.
Do not use "comprised of." Use one of the following forms:
examples:
Do not use contractions.
The word "data" always takes a plural verb.
Use "doctor's" "master's" "bachelor's" and "associate's" when referring to academic degrees in tables, figures, and text heads.
Do not use "doctoral" and baccalaureate" in these instances. To allow for variety of expression in the text, however, both uses are proper.
Avoid using "I"; avoid using "we" when referring to OERI offices or authors (except in acknowledgments and forewords).
Avoid using "he or she" when possible. Instead, use plural nouns and then plural pronouns for reference. For example, instead of "the teacher and her students," write "teachers and their students." Where this is not appropriate, use "he or she."
In text, always place e.g. and i.e. and the accompanying phrase in parentheses. A comma follows both (i.e., means "that is" and is used to clarify by providing an alternative explanation), however, (e.g., means "for example" and clarifies by citing specific examples).
In text, use "percentage" (not "percent") in such forms as: "a small percentage of the class . . ." Use "percent" in text when associated with numbers, as in "12 percent of the class. . ." Spell out "percent" in text, tables, and all figures except pie charts, unless space limits you to using %.
Use "sex," not "gender."
Use shortened forms for words with variant spelling; for example, totaled, leveled, toward, catalog, and acknowledgments.
Who refers to persons, that refers to objects, as:
Use whom if the person is the object of the sentence, as:
Use en-dashes instead of hyphens between years.
In the body of tables, use "school year ending" as a stub or column head. You then can use single (i.e., nondashed) years under such a head.
In text, "academic year," "fiscal year," and "school year" should be lowercase the first time you use them. From then on, for fiscal year, use FY and space before the appropriate year, dropping the 19 (i.e., FY 97). Do the same for academic year (i.e., AY 97) or school year (i.e., SY 97) if you decide to use those abbreviations.
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 [ Preparing the Publication ] |
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 [ Appendix A: A Sample List of Abbreviations ] |