Kris Anstrom
National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education
Planning for effective literacy development for limited English proficient children entails an understanding of the role native language has to play in the development of a second language, and more importantly, in the overall cognitive development of the child. Frequently, teachers, administrators, and others involved with the education of these young language minority children have equated their emergent literacy development with English language literacy development in the belief that children with English literacy skills will be better prepared for school. Such beliefs have resulted in policies detrimental to language minority children and their families (Prince and Lawrence, 1993). These policies have advocated for English-only approaches in early childhood programs, approaches which are often detrimental to the continued cognitive and linguistic development of the child.
Proponents of English-only approaches for early childhood programs justify them based on two erroneous claims: first, that English-only instruction will best prepare these children for the demands of the predominantly English-speaking school environments they will be entering; and secondly, that very young children are better language learners than older children and adults. However, research on language and literacy development in language minority children does not support either claim. A number of studies have determined that cognitive and academic development in the first language has a vital and positive effect on second language schooling. Literacy development, concept formation, and subject knowledge developed in the first language will all transfer to the second language. Furthermore, research indicates that if children do not reach a certain threshold in their first language, including literacy, they may experience cognitive difficulties in the second language (Collier, 1995).
Additional research also disputes the claim that very young children are better language learners. They may achieve a superficial fluency in the second language rather quickly, but without a strong cognitive base in their first language, these children will tend to take much longer to acquire cognitive academic language skills (i.e., the language necessary to speak, listen, read, and write in an academic environment) in the second language (Ramirez et.al, 1991). A third concern, voiced in Wong Fillmore?s research (1992), is that in very young children English can begin to replace the first language, especially in the United States where minority languages are not highly valued and where strong emphasis is placed on assimilation. Such an occurrence can have a profound effect on the child?s relationship with his or her parents and language community. However, Wong Fillmore does not suggest abandoning English language programming for these students; rather, she states that the issue is timing. ?The children have to learn English, but they should not be required to do so until their native languages are stable enough to handle the inevitable encounter with English and all it means? (Wong Fillmore, 1992).
The optimal environment for supporting native language literacy development in young language minority children necessitates that the teacher or caregiver use the child?s language, thus ensuring a match between school and home. In order to develop linguistically, cognitively and socially, the child must be exposed to the native language in numerous environments--home, school, and community. This layering effect provides children with a rich language environment in which they will encounter a variety of vocabulary, grammatical constructions, ideas and concepts, all of which are important precursors to literacy development (Kagan and Garcia, 1991).
A language rich environment in a school or caregiving setting can involve many of the same methods and materials through which English language literacy is encouraged, only the non-English language becomes the medium. Thus books, tapes, videos, puzzles, posters, and other materials should be provided in the native language. Children should be encouraged to use the native language to communicate with others, to tell stories, to make up rhymes, to label drawings, and to use books as resources. The teacher or caregiver should encourage children to expand their vocabulary, to increase the grammatical complexity of their utterances, and to improve their pronunciation. Particular emphasis should be given to incorporating materials and practices that are culturally relevant for the language minority children in question.
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) recently published their position statement, Responding to Linguistic and Cultural Diversity: Recommendations for Effective Early Childhood Education (1995). Though not specifically concerned with literacy, the statement?s recommendations provide a framework for the type of environment early childhood settings for language minority students should strive for. The NAEYC statement also offers several suggestions for situations where the teacher or caregiver does not speak the non-English language or where children speak many different languages. In these cases, materials, such as signs, books, tapes, and posters in those language(s) should be provided. Parents and others who speak the native languages can be encouraged to volunteer on a regular basis. Teachers should also learn a few words or phrases of the children?s language(s); by so doing, the teacher affirms the children?s language and culture. The teacher can model correct English while also allowing language minority students to respond in their native language and to use this language with their native-language peers in learning activities (NAEYC, 1995).
A final and vital component of language minority children?s literacy development is the role the parents and home environment play. The early childhood period is when parents and the home environment exert the most influence on children; thus, parents must become partners in their children?s education. When discrepancies exist between the culture of the home and the school, teachers need to create ways to bridge this gap (Villarruel et.al., 1995). A first step is to learn about the home cultures of their language minority children. In keeping with Luis Moll?s ?Funds of Knowledge? paradigm (1990), teachers can design innovative approaches to literacy development that are culturally and linguistically compatible with the background of language minority students.
One example of an approach to literacy development that incorporates the students? culture is the Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP) in Hawaii. In order to address issues surrounding Hawaiian children?s low achievement, a home culture communication feature was introduced into literacy development lessons. Rather than traditional story discussion methods, Hawaiian story talk was used. In story talk two or more children co-narrate. Such co-narration involves turn taking, joint performance and cooperative production of a response. Story talk is more than just a means of conveying information; it also supports the relationship between the narrators, and in a larger sense links school learning with the home culture (Grant, 1995).
In light of President Clinton?s recent challenge to ensure that every child can read independently and well by the end of third grade, those involved in the education of young language minority children must provide the literacy learning opportunities that these children need to achieve this goal. Encouraging native language literacy development in conjunction with the use of culturally relevant practices based on a sound understanding of the home culture help give language minority children an equitable and appropriate learning environment for meeting President Clinton?s challenge.
Collier, V. (1995) Acquiring a second language for school. National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education: Washington, D.C.
Grant, R. (1995). Meeting the needs of young second language learners. In E.E. Garcia and B. McLaughlin (Eds.), Meeting the challenge of linguistic and cultural diversity in early childhood education. Teachers College Press: New York, NY.
Kagan, S.L. and Garcia, E.E. (1991). Educating culturally and linguistically diverse preschoolers: Moving the agenda. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 6, 427-443.
Moll, L. C. (1990). Community knowledge and classroom practice: Combining resources for literacy instruction. University of Arizona and Development Associates: Tucson, AZ and Arlington, VA.
National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1995). NAEYC position statement: Responding to linguistic and cultural diversity: Recommendations for effective early childhood education. Author: Washington, D.C.
http://www.ncbe.gwu.edu/miscpubs/naeyc/position.htm
Prince, C.D. and Lawrence, L.A. (1993). School readiness and language minority students: Implications of the first national education goal. National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education: Washington, D.C. http://www.ncbe.gwu.edu/ncbepubs/focus/focus7.htm
Ramirez, J. D. (1991). Executive summary to the final report: Longitudinal study of structured English immersion strategy, early-exit and late-exit transitional bilingual education programs for language-minority children. Aguirre International: San Mateo, CA.
http://www.ncbe.gwu.edu/miscpubs/ramirez/longitudinal.htm
Villarruel, F.A. et.al. (1995). Diverse families. In E.E. Garcia and B. McLaughlin (Eds.), Meeting the challenge of linguistic and cultural diversity in early childhood education. Teachers College Press: New York, NY.
Wong Fillmore, L. (1992). When learning a second language means losing the first. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6(3), 323-346.
The National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education (NCBE), operated by The George Washington University, Center for the Study of Language and Education, is funded by the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA) to collect, analyze, and disseminate information relating to the effective education of linguistically and culturally diverse learners in the U.S. NCBE provides information through its World Wide Web server, produces a weekly e-mail news bulletin, Newsline, and manages a topical electronic discussion group, NCBE Roundtable.
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