Many studies have shown a link between participation in high-risk and unhealthy behaviors and student learning. A selection of these studies is described below.

Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drug Use
Many physical changes occur in the brain and body as a result of drug, alcohol, and tobacco abuse (e.g., Jaffe, 1980). These physical changes can make learning and concentration more difficult and can negatively affect school performance. Weakened immune systems, as well as dependency and withdrawal symptoms, can also lead to increased absences.

Tobacco Use

According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1988) some short-term effects of tobacco use that can impede student performance include:

• Decreased attentiveness and activity, caused by the effects of nicotine withdrawal.

• Increased absenteeism associated with colds, bronchitis, and asthma.

Marijuana Use

• Regular marijuana use can produce "amotivational syndrome," in which people become more passive and less oriented toward achievement (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1982).

• Findings from a nationwide survey of approximately 61,000 high school seniors showed that students who were frequently truant, spent many evenings away from home for recreational purposes, and did poorly in school were more likely than the average senior to be users of marijuana (Bachman, Johnston, & O'Malley, 1998).

Multiple Substance Use

• A comparison of two randomly-selected groups of adolescents found that students at high-risk for school drop-out were more likely to abuse substances, had greater access to substances, had less control of use, and had more negative consequences due to substance abuse than students not at risk (Eggert & Herting, 1993).

• Another study, designed to examine the relationship between drug and alcohol use and school drop-out, revealed higher drop-out rates among high school students who reported using drugs than among non-drug users. (Friedman, Glickman, & Utada, 1985).

Violence

According to Prothrow-Stith & Quaday (1995), exposure to violence can have negative psychological and physiological consequences that can also affect school performance. Findings from their research indicate the following:

• Children who have been exposed to violence can have increased anxiety, which may make it more difficult to attend to what is going on in school.

• Psychological problems associated with trauma and violence may interfere with the learning process and can affect memory and the ability to incorporate and transfer skills.

• School performance problems that have been linked to violent behavior include poor verbal skills, difficulty with attention, and antisocial behavior.

How Prevention Programs Can Help

Current findings suggest that substance abuse and violence prevention programs can improve school performance and academic achievement. Several studies that support this conclusion are reviewed below.

Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs Prevention Programs
Numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of health education programs in preventing alcohol, tobacco, and drug abuse. These programs help students develop the skills they need to make healthy choices, which can lead to improved academic performance.

• Students participating in Reconnecting Youth, a drug prevention program designed to improve life skills, showed significant improvements in school-reported grade point average and drug control, and a trend toward less progression of drug use. (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 1998).

• Long-term follow-up of inner-city children who had participated in a comprehensive, K-5 prevention program showed positive findings in the areas of behavior and school performance. Students receiving the full intervention reported less heavy drinking, fewer violent delinquent acts, less frequent sexual intercourse, fewer sexual partners, and less pregnancy at age eighteen. They also had higher school-reported grade point averages and self-reported achievement, and were less likely to repeat a grade. (Hawkins, et al., 1999)

Violence

Patterns of violence often begin early in life, but school programs can still help ameliorate some of the effects. Experts on resilience suggest that access to a positive educational environment that promotes coping skills and helps children understand how they can achieve and participate can contribute to a child's ability to recover from a stressful environment (e.g., Prothrow-Stith & Quaday, 1995). Experts also believe that learning and cognitive skills help to prevent violence by improving decision-making and enhancing personal feelings of success. Through education and training, students can learn to reason through and defuse violent situations and help their peers do the same.

• Long-term follow-up of inner-city children who had participated in a comprehensive, K-5 prevention program revealed a decrease in violent delinquent acts, and a relationship between decreased violence and academic achievement. (Hawkins et al., 1999).

• A study comparing three groups of high school students -- those participating in a class-specific, comprehensive educational intervention; those participating in a school-wide violence prevention initiative; and those participating in neither -- found that "program" students were less likely to be suspended, with students in the class-specific group the least likely. (Hausman, Pierce, & Briggs, 1996).

• Project Support, a three-year drug and gang prevention program for elementary school students, produced positive outcomes in both behavior and school performance. These included less crime against people and property, better attendance, less tardiness, higher academic achievement scores in reading, math, and language, and increased pro-school attitudes. (Simun, Slovacek, Batie, & Simun, 1996).

• A study examining a "caring classroom" program developed for elementary school children with disruptive behavior showed an overall decrease in disruptive behavior and an increase in academic achievement. Most students receiving the program had improved report card grades and some students had better rates of assignment completion. (Lindmark, Marshall, Riley, & Strey, 1996).

From: Massachusetts Department of Education Learning and Support Services. (2000). The role of comprehensive school health education programs in the link between health and academic performance: A literature review. Malden, MA: Author.

REFERENCES

Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O'Malley, P. M. (1998). Explaining recent increases in students' marijuana use: Impacts of perceived risks and disapproval, 1976 through 1996. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 887-892.

Dusenbury, L., Falco, M., & Lake, A. (1997). A review of the evaluation of 47 drug abuse prevention curricula available nationally. Journal of School Health, 67, 127-132.

Dusenbury, L., Falco, M., Lake, A., & Brannigan, R., Bosworth, K. (1997). Nine critical elements of promising violence prevention programs. Journal of School Health, 67, 409-414.

Eggert, L. L. & Hertin, J. R. (1993). Drug involvement among potential dropouts and "typical" youth. Journal of Drug Education, 23, 31-55.

Friedman, A. S., Glickman, N., & Utada, A. (1985). Does drug and alcohol use lead to failure to graduate from high school? Journal of Drug Education, 15, 353-364.

Hausman, A., Pierce, G., & Briggs, L. (1996). Evaluation of comprehensive violence prevention education: Effects on student behavior. Society for Adolescent Medicine, 19, 104-110.

Hawkins, J. D., Vatalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K.G. (1999). Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 153, 226-234.

Jaffe, J. H. (1980). Drug addiction and drug abuse. In A. G. Goodman, L.S. Gilman, & A. Gilman (Eds.), The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co.

Lindmark, T., Marshall, J., Riley, S., & Strey, E. (1996). Improving Behavior and Academic Success Through A Caring Classroom. Master's Thesis, Saint Xavier University. ED 399 493

Prothrow-Stith, D., & Quaday, S. (1995). Hidden Casualties: The Relationship between Violence and Learning. Washington, DC: National Health and Education Consortium.

Simun, P. B., Slovacek, S. P., Batie, M., & Simun, M. (1996). Project Support Evaluation. Los Angeles Unified School District, report #3- Final Evaluation. ED 398 291

United States Department of Health and Human Services. (1982).
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United States Department of Health and Human Services. (1988). The Health Consequences of Smoking: Addiction. A Report to the Surgeon General. Washington, DC: Author.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. (1998). School Health: Evaluated Programs, Second Edition. Washington, DC: Author.