According to Sylvia Rockwell, who has taught students with emotional and behavioral disorders for 20 years, students with these issues "often represent an extra challenge [in implementing service-learning projects] with (a) their needs for structure, (b) their limited social skills, particularly in cooperative group activities, and (c) their tendencies to think in terms of benefits to self rather than in service to others initially. Service-learning projects need to be selected with the level of group functioning in mind.

"Classes that function at an early stage of group development, for example, may need to work independently toward a common goal (Rockwell & Guetzloe, 1996). Emergy and Richardson Turpin (1996) describe an SL project that was integrated with IEP [individualized education plan] goals and objectives. The students designed cards and wrote messages in the cards. The cards were created for individuals who were hospitalized. Each student was able to work independently on his or her contribution without being prematurely overwhelmed by demands for social interaction."

Rockwell listed three stages of development for these students, and service-learning projects that are attuned to each stage.

Stage 1

Characteristics and Needs
"During Stage 1, students exhibit high rates of noncompliance that may escalate to verbal and physical aggression. Trust and safety issues are of primary importance in establishing rules, routines, and protective structure. Projects that allow students to make a personal contribution to a group effort without having to interact with peers help individuals begin to develop a positive sense of belonging without being overwhelmed socially and emotionally.

Suggested Projects
- Compose cards for the elderly.
- Fill canning jars with various types of dried beads and spices.
- Construct learning games for younger children who need assistance.
- Paint clay pets and plant seeds to give to people who are shut in.
- Make potholders or quilt squares.

Stage 2

Characteristics and Needs
"During Stage 2, students have begun to trust one another and exhibit fewer acts of aggression. A shift begins to occur in their orientation toward working with others and their sense of group activity. The primary needs of the group include activities that allow them to practice skills in making decisions and working with a peer. While the skills necessary for age-appropriate cooperation have not been mastered, dyads can often successfully manage well-structured activities.

Suggested Projects
- Feed and wash dogs at the animal shelter.
- Develop construction projects that require simple tools, such as building birdhouses.
- Plan and care for a section of a garden with a partner.
- Tutor a younger student.
- Assist an elderly person with daily tasks.

Stage 3

Characteristics and Needs
"During Stage 3, students have established satisfactory levels of safety and trust. They take pride in belonging to the group and have mastered the social skills necessary for the more complex interactions with peers as well as other adults. At this stage in the group's development, all age-appropriate activities are possible. Movement into the community to generalize skills learned in the classroom is of particular value.

Suggested Projects
- Collaborate with other classes. Restore a local park.
- Collaborate with other schools. Develop a common nature study area.
- Collaborate with community agencies.
- Tackle a local environmental issue such as pollution."

Source: Rockwell, S. (Spring, 2001). Service-Learning: Barriers, Benefits and Models of Excellence. Beyond Behavior, 10(3), 16-21